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Do you really need antibiotics? Curbing our use helps fight drug-resistant bacteria

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/minyon-avent-1486987">Minyon Avent</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-queensland-805">The University of Queensland</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/fiona-doukas-1157050">Fiona Doukas</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-sydney-841">University of Sydney</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/kristin-xenos-1491653">Kristin Xenos</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-newcastle-1060">University of Newcastle</a> Antibiotic resistance occurs when a microorganism changes and no longer responds to an antibiotic that was previously effective. It’s <a href="https://thelancet.com/journals/eclinm/article/PIIS2589-5370(21)00502-2/fulltext">associated with</a> poorer outcomes, a greater chance of death and higher health-care costs. In Australia, antibiotic resistance means some patients are admitted to hospital because oral antibiotics are <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antibiotic-resistance">no longer effective</a> and they need to receive intravenous therapy via a drip. Antibiotic resistance is rising to high levels in certain parts of the world. Some hospitals <a href="https://www.reactgroup.org/news-and-views/news-and-opinions/year-2022/the-impact-of-antibiotic-resistance-on-cancer-treatment-especially-in-low-and-middle-income-countries-and-the-way-forward/">have to consider</a> whether it’s even viable to treat cancers or perform surgery due to the risk of antibiotic-resistant infections. Australia is <a href="https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/our-work/antimicrobial-resistance/antimicrobial-use-and-resistance-australia-aura/aura-2023-fifth-australian-report-antimicrobial-use-and-resistance-human-health">one of the highest users</a> of antibiotics in the developed world. We need to use this precious resource wisely, or we risk a future where a simple infection could kill you because there isn’t an effective antibiotic. <h2>When should antibiotics not be used?</h2> Antibiotics only work for some infections. They work against bacteria but <a href="https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/publications-and-resources/resource-library/do-i-really-need-antibiotics">don’t treat</a> infections caused by viruses. Most community acquired infections, even those caused by bacteria, are likely to get better without antibiotics. Taking an antibiotic when you don’t need it won’t make you feel better or recover sooner. But it can increase your chance of side effects like nausea and diarrhoea. Some people think green mucus (or snot) is a sign of bacterial infection, requiring antibiotics. But it’s actually <a href="https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/sites/default/files/2023-11/aura_2023_do_i_really_need_antibiotics.pdf">a sign</a> your immune system is working to fight your infection. <h2>If you wait, you’ll often get better</h2> <a href="https://www.tg.org.au/">Clinical practice guidelines</a> for antibiotic use aim to ensure patients receive antibiotics when appropriate. Yet 40% of GPs say they prescribe antibiotics <a href="https://doi.org/10.1071/HI13019">to meet patient expectations</a>. And <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35973750/">one in five</a> patients expect antibiotics for respiratory infections. It can be difficult for doctors to decide if a patient has a viral respiratory infection or are at an early stage of serious bacterial infection, particularly in children. One option is to “watch and wait” and ask patients to return if there is clinical deterioration. An alternative is to prescribe an antibiotic but advise the patient to not have it dispensed unless specific symptoms occur. This can <a href="https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004417.pub5">reduce antibiotic use by 50%</a> with no decrease in patient satisfaction, and no increase in complication rates. <h2>Sometimes antibiotics are life-savers</h2> For some people – particularly those with a weakened immune system – a simple infection can become more serious. Patients with life-threatening suspected infections should receive an appropriate antibiotic <a href="https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/our-work/clinical-care-standards/antimicrobial-stewardship-clinical-care-standard">immediately</a>. This includes serious infections such as <a href="https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/bacterial-meningitis#:%7E:text=What%20is%20bacterial%20meningitis%3F,can%20cause%20life%2Dthreatening%20problems.">bacterial meningitis</a> (infection of the membranes surrounding the brain) and <a href="https://clinicalexcellence.qld.gov.au/priority-areas/safety-and-quality/sepsis/adult-sepsis#:%7E:text=Adult%20patients%20with%20sepsis%20also,adult%20emergency%20department%20sepsis%20pathway.">sepsis</a> (which can lead to organ failure and even death). <h2>When else might antibiotics be used?</h2> Antibiotics are sometimes used to prevent infections in patients who are undergoing surgery and are at significant risk of infection, such as those undergoing bowel resection. These patients will <a href="https://www.tg.org.au">generally receive</a> a single dose before the procedure. Antibiotics may also <a href="https://www.tg.org.au">be given</a> to patients undergoing chemotherapy for solid organ cancers (of the breast or prostate, for example), if they are at high risk of infection. While most sore throats are caused by a virus and usually resolve on their own, some high risk patients with a bacterial strep A infection which can cause “scarlet fever” are given antibiotics to prevent a more serious infection like <a href="https://www.rhdaustralia.org.au/">acute rheumatic fever</a>. <h2>How long is a course of antibiotics?</h2> The recommended duration of a course of antibiotics depends on the type of infection, the likely cause, where it is in your body and how effective the antibiotics are at killing the bacteria. In the past, courses were largely arbitrary and based on assumptions that antibiotics should be taken for long enough to eliminate the infecting bacteria. More recent research does not support this and shorter courses are <a href="https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/full/10.7326/M19-1509">nearly always as effective as longer ones</a>, particularly for community acquired respiratory infections. For <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6736742/">community acquired pneumonia</a>, for example, research shows a three- to five-day course of antibiotics is at least as effective as a seven- to 14-day course. The “take until all finished” approach is no longer recommended, as the longer the antibiotic exposure, the greater the chance the bacteria will develop resistance. However, for infections where it is more difficult to eradicate the bacteria, such as tuberculosis and bone infections, a combination of antibiotics for many months is usually required. <h2>What if your infection is drug-resistant?</h2> You may have an antibiotic-resistant infection if you don’t get better after treatment with standard antibiotics. Your clinician will collect samples for lab testing if they suspect you have antibiotic-resistant infection, based on your travel history (especially if you’ve been hospitalised in a country with high rates of antibiotic resistance) and if you’ve had a recent course of antibiotics that hasn’t cleared your infection. Antibiotic-resistant infections are managed by prescribing broad-spectrum antibiotics. These are like a sledgehammer, wiping out many different species of bacteria. (Narrow-spectrum antibiotics conversely can be thought of as a scalpel, more targeted and only affecting one or two kinds of bacteria.) Broad-spectrum antibiotics are usually more expensive and come with more severe side effects. <h2>What can patients do?</h2> Decisions about antibiotic prescriptions should be made using <a href="https://www.safetyandquality.gov.au/our-work/partnering-consumers/shared-decision-making/decision-support-tools-specific-conditions">shared decision aids</a>, where patients and prescribers discuss the risks and benefits of antibiotics for conditions like a sore throat, middle ear infection or acute bronchitis. Consider asking your doctor questions such as: <ul> <li>do we need to test the cause of my infection?</li> <li>how long should my recovery take?</li> <li>what are the risks and benefits of me taking antibiotics?</li> <li>will the antibiotic affect my regular medicines?</li> <li>how should I take the antibiotic (how often, for how long)?</li> </ul> Other ways to fight antibiotic resistance include: <ul> <li>returning leftover antibiotics to a pharmacy for safe disposal</li> <li>never consuming leftover antibiotics or giving them to anyone else</li> <li>not keeping prescription repeats for antibiotics “in case” you become sick again</li> <li>asking your doctor or pharmacist what you can do to feel better and ease your symptoms rather than asking for antibiotics.</li> </ul> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/minyon-avent-1486987">Minyon Avent</a>, Antimicrobial Stewardship Pharmacist, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-queensland-805">The University of Queensland</a>; <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/fiona-doukas-1157050">Fiona Doukas</a>, PhD candidate, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-sydney-841">University of Sydney</a>, and <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/kristin-xenos-1491653">Kristin Xenos</a>, Research Assistant, College of Health, Medicine and Wellbeing, School of Biomedical Science and Pharmacy, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-newcastle-1060">University of Newcastle</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/do-you-really-need-antibiotics-curbing-our-use-helps-fight-drug-resistant-bacteria-217920">original article</a>.

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What do the different colours of mould mean in my house?

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michael-taylor-228803">Michael Taylor</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/flinders-university-972">Flinders University</a> You may be interested (or possibly horrified) to discover you ingest and inhale thousands of tiny life forms on a daily basis. The air and surfaces around you are home to multitudes of <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B978012394805200004X">bacteria, fungi, viruses</a>, mites, algae and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0043135400004206">protozoa</a>. Your skin isn’t much better, with a complex ecosystem of organisms called commensals which aren’t necessarily good or bad, but will shift in their composition depending on <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11053">where you live</a>, <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9284/6/1/2">the products you use</a> and <a href="https://elifesciences.org/articles/458">the pets you have</a>. Most of these creatures are generally undetectable due to their microscopic size and low concentrations. But when they find a niche they can exploit, you might notice them by their smell, or the appearance of unwanted staining and colour changes. A lot of this fungal growth is what we call mould. We’ve all been disappointed in ourselves at one time or another, lifting a neglected orange out of the fruit bowl to discover the bottom half is covered in a velvety blue-green growth. But what do the myriad colours that appear on our stuff tell us about the world we try not to think about? <h2>Black</h2> Often black staining is quite a disturbing occurrence. The concept of toxic black mould is one many people have become aware of due to <a href="https://theconversation.com/fungi-after-the-floods-how-to-get-rid-of-mould-to-protect-your-health-111341">flood impacts</a>. A quick online search will likely terrify you, but not all black discolouration is due to the same organisms, and almost none of it will outright cause you harm. Stachybotrys is the one known as toxic black mould. It often turns up on <a href="https://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/doi/pdf/10.1289/ehp.99107s3505">building materials that have been wet for a long time</a>. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=384&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533907/original/file-20230626-67275-zxd3ah.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=483&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A severely mouldy wall covered in grey and black blotches" /></a><figcaption></figcaption>When the grout in your shower turns black though, that’s a different fungus called <a href="https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajb/article/view/130453">Aureobasidium</a>. It’s slimy, sticky and somewhere between a filamentous mould, which grows threadlike roots through whatever it’s eating, and a yeast, which prefer a free-floating, single-celled style of life.</figure> Bleaching will often kill Aureobasidium, but the dark pigmentation will likely hang around – harmlessly, but stubbornly. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=338&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533894/original/file-20230626-19-68wsem.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A close-up of white grout between grey tiles with black spots on it" /></a></figure> <h2>Blue</h2> That blue orange I mentioned before, you can thank Penicillium for that. The organism that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0168160512000852">gives us blue cheese</a> and the antibiotic penicillin is also responsible for producing a dense growth of mould that almost looks like smoke when disturbed, spreading millions of spores onto the rest of your fruit bowl. Penicillium is a big group with <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0166061620300129">hundreds of species</a>, ranging from recognised pathogens to species yet to be named. However, the ones that turn up in our homes are generally the same “weed” species that simply cause food spoilage or grow in soil. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533895/original/file-20230626-107392-7jinnz.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Close-up of a bright orange with a fuzzy blue mould spot on it" /></a></figure> <h2>Yellow and orange</h2> We often think of fungi as organisms that thrive in the dark, but that’s not always true. In fact, some need exposure to light – and ultraviolet (UV) light in particular – to complete their life cycle. Many plant pathogens use UV light exposure as a trigger to produce their spores, and then protect their DNA by <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1134/S0003683814020094">hiding it behind melanin-containing shells</a>. Stemphylium and Epicoccum turn up in our homes from time to time, often hitching a ride on natural fibres such as jute, hemp and hessian. They produce a spectrum of staining that can often turn damp items yellow, brown or orange. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533948/original/file-20230626-15121-eh3869.png?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A piece of wood laminate with yellow patches on it" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> We’re all fairly familiar with the green spots that turn up on mouldy bread, cake and other food items. Often we try to convince ourselves if we just cut off the bad bit, we can still salvage lunch. Sadly that’s not the case, as the roots of the fungi – collectively called mycelium – spread through the food, digesting and collecting sufficient nutrients to pop out a series of tiny fruiting bodies which produce the coloured spores you see. The green tuft is often from a group of fungi called Aspergillus. Under the microscope they look rather like the puffy top of a dandelion gone to seed. Like Penicillium, Aspergillus is another big fungal group with lots of species that turn up virtually in every environment. Some are <a href="https://academic.oup.com/mmy/article/43/Supplement_1/S87/1748298">heat tolerant</a>, some <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/21553769.2015.1033653">love acid</a> and some will happily produce spores that <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1749461311000406">stay airborne for days to months at a time</a>. In the green gang is also a fungus called Trichoderma, which is Latin for “hairy skin”. Trichoderma produces masses of forest-green, spherical spores which tend to grow on wet cardboard or dirty carpet. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533897/original/file-20230626-160496-7cuh4q.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A pile of green grains on a small round tray" /></a></figure> <h2>Pink, purple and red</h2> There are plenty to speak of in this category. And there is also a common bacterium that makes the list. Neurospora, also known as the red bread mould, is one of the most studied fungi in scientific literature. It’s another common, non-hazardous one that has been used as <a href="https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.3732/ajb.1400377">a model organism</a> to observe fungal genetics, evolution and growth. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533913/original/file-20230626-24-eh3869.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A block of orange mouldy substance sitting on a banana leaf" /></a><figcaption></figcaption>Fusarium is less common indoors, being <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0261219416302794">an important crop pathogen</a>, but will sometimes turn spoiled rice purple. It also occasionally turns up on wet cement sheet, causing splotchy violet patches. Fusarium makes large, sticky, moon-shaped spores that have evolved to spread by rain splashes and hang onto plants. However, it is fairly bad at getting airborne and so doesn’t tend to spread very far from where it’s growing.</figure> Finally in this category, that pink scum that turns up around bathroom taps or in the shower? It’s actually a bacterium called Serratia. It will happily chew up the soap scum residue left over in bathrooms, and has been shown to <a href="https://journals.asm.org/doi/full/10.1128/AEM.02632-10">survive in liquid soaps and handwash</a>. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=337&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533900/original/file-20230626-98733-ggql6s.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=424&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Close-up of white tile grout covered in a pink translucent film" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <h2>White</h2> When fungi were first being classified and were eventually given their own phylogenetic kingdom, there were lots of wonderful and not strictly categorical ways we tried to split them up. One of these was hyaline and non-hyaline, essentially referring to transparent and coloured, respectively. One of the interesting non-pigmented moulds you may well catch sight of is a thing called Isaria farinosa (“farinosa” being Latin for “floury”). This fungus is a parasite of some moths and cicadas and is visible as brilliant white, <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09583150802471812">tree-shaped growths on their unfortunate hosts</a>. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=450&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/533911/original/file-20230626-72187-xubf6k.jpeg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=566&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="A dead bug on a green forest floor with white and yellow growths sticking out of it" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> So when you notice the world around you changing colour, you can marvel with your newfound knowledge at the microscopic wonders that live complex lives alongside yours. Then maybe clean it up, and give the fruit bowl a wash. <img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/207737/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> Image credit: Getty / Shutterstock <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/michael-taylor-228803">Michael Taylor</a>, Adjunct academic, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/flinders-university-972">Flinders University</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/what-do-the-different-colours-of-mould-mean-in-my-house-207737">original article</a>.

Home & Garden

This little known bacteria could revolutionise your gut health

From associations with our mental health to affecting our weight or risk of cancer and other conditions, the trillions of bacteria, fungi and viruses living on our skin and inside our bodies play a significant role in our overall health. Most of these bacteria, fungi, and viruses, referred to as microbes, live in our intestines in a “pocket” called the cecum, and are collectively referred to as the gut microbiome. <div id="firstFloatAd"> <div data-fuse="21752497249" data-fuse-code="fuse-slot-21752497249-1" data-fuse-zone-instance="zone-instance-21752497249-1" data-fuse-slot="fuse-slot-21752497249-1" data-fuse-processed-at="2366"> </div> <div data-fuse="21924055733" data-fuse-code="fuse-slot-21924055733-1" data-fuse-zone-instance="zone-instance-21924055733-1" data-fuse-slot="fuse-slot-21924055733-1" data-fuse-processed-at="2366"> </div> </div> But, out of the roughly 1,000 species of bacteria living in our bodies, one stands out for its role in helping with Crohn’s disease and irritable bowel syndrome, as well with bloating and general discomfort: a strain of bacteria called Akkermansia muciniphila. This probiotic strain has been the subject of plenty of scientific research, with several studies finding that Akkermansia plays a role in lessening inflammation and helping with weight regulation. Dr Colleen Cutcliffe, a microbiologist and the cofounder and CEO of Pendulum Therapeutics, tells OverSixty that our gut contributes to a range of our bodily functions and issues. Akkermansia, which is the first new genus to be used as a probiotic in 50 years, is also the only genus of bacteria that lives in the lining of our gut – giving it an incredibly important role in many facets of our health. “What’s been discovered is that your gut plays a role in a lot more than just your gut issues – it also plays a role in how you metabolise foods; your gut is even linked to your brain and it can change what foods you crave,” Dr Cutcliffe explains. “You can think about your gut like this big tube, and the tube has this fence on the outside of it. And I think about my fence in my backyard – when I first moved into my house, it was a brand new wooden fence and all the planks were really strong. “But through weather and ageing and time, those planks can start to wear down and you might even lose the glue between the planks and a plank falls down, and that’s really bad because now your yard is exposed to the outside world. “Well, your gut lining is sort of the same thing. And there’s literally a fence and there are these planks that are held up, and Akkermansia is a strain that literally lives right at that fence, and its job is to make sure that, as those planks wear out, that it’s replacing them with new planks.” With the levels of Akkermansia in our gut and the diversity of different microbes in our gut declining as we age and as a result of stress, menopause or even changes to our circadian rhythm from travelling between time zones, effects can manifest in a variety of ways. “Some people get allergies as they get older, their metabolism slows down, they experience more inflammatory responses, or their immune system feels like it’s not quite as strong,” Dr Cutcliffe says. “Now people will start to look at ‘Is there something depleted in my gut microbiome that I could be taking to improve my health?’ That’s what this new science is all about.” <img src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/2022/10/1280Wesley_Akkermansia_Kitchen_Pill_In_Hand0981.jpg" alt="" width="1280" height="720" /> An anaerobic puzzle While there is plenty of evidence for the benefits of Akkermansia, there have been some key issues in getting it into our bodies to help those who need a bacterial boost. After more than 15 years, no one had figured out how to grow these tiny bacteria in commercial quantities – and the only effective way of increasing the amount of Akkermansia in people has been through a faecal transfer, where faecal matter from a healthy person is given to another via oral capsules or during a colonoscopy. The issue stems from the difficulty in growing the bacteria, as it thrives in the lining of our gut, where there is a total absence of oxygen. “In the gut, there’s no oxygen,” Dr Cutcliffe explains, adding that growing Akkermansia is similar to brewing beer or turning grape juice into wine. “So what that means is you can’t have a single molecule of oxygen in this big vat, or the whole batch of bacteria dies.” When they couldn’t find suppliers to manufacture Akkermansia without the bacteria arriving dead, Dr Cutcliffe and her team had to come up with their own process, working with leading technology and research institutions around the US to create a special oxygen-free lab where Akkermansia could be grown without exposure to any oxygen at all. “We ended up having to create a plant that is an end-to-end closed system that doesn’t let oxygen into it,” she says. “It’s like when you get a new recipe to cook a meal, and then all of a sudden you realise you also have to now make the pots.” Fast forward to today, and Pendulum has created its very own patented strain of Akkermansia that you won’t find anywhere else – and you can take it in capsule form. Unlike faecal transplants, which Dr Cutcliffe describes as “taking the whole kitchen sink and throwing it at you”, the capsules only contain Akkermansia, making them a more targeted, regulated and easily monitored treatment. <img src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/2022/10/1280Akkermansia_Foods.jpg" alt="" width="1280" height="720" /> The story of Akkermansia starts with an infant’s microbiome After earning a PhD in biochemistry and microbiology, Dr Cutcliffe was inspired to start Pendulum and work on Akkermansia after her eldest daughter, Anabella, was born prematurely and given antibiotics as a preventative measure to protect her from infections. “My older daughter was born almost two months premature,” she recalls. “And when you have a baby that’s born that early, you get to hold them for a couple of seconds and then they’re taken to intensive care. Anabella spent the first few months of her life in intensive care, hooked up to all these machines and also receiving multiple doses of antibiotics. “And one of the things I noticed about her as she started elementary school was that she had food sensitivities that the rest of us did not have, and her metabolism was a little bit different from everybody else’s.” At the same time, Dr Cutcliffe and her co-founders were considering starting Pendulum when she came across two papers that showed that children taking lots of antibiotics were more prone to conditions such as obesity, diabetes, ADHD, allergies, and coeliac disease. “So reading these papers, really, for me, it all came together,” she says. “I realised, ‘Oh my gosh, my daughter’s early start to life where she took these antibiotics, which completely kill your entire microbiome, have set her on a path where she’s depleted her microbiome and she’s potentially going to end up with all these chronic illnesses. “This was my issue that made me really want to start the company; to help her get back those strains so that she wasn’t going to be facing this life of depletion and chronic illnesses.” Now her whole family takes Akkermansia capsules – and even her dog has had a try! “For me, personally, I think it’s so important that that fence stay strong that I want to make sure my family has it,” she says. “And I do think that, fundamentally, all of us would benefit from making sure we have enough of this strain which is monitoring that fence, and especially as we age.” <img src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/2022/10/1280PGC_Bottle_Homepage2_V1.jpg" alt="" width="1280" height="720" /> How can it help me? Even if you don’t experience noticeable issues with your gut, you can still benefit from taking Akkermansia. Due to the important role our gut microbiome plays in digestive health, the levels of essential chemical messengers in our brains, and even our skin health, Dr Cutcliffe explains that those taking the probiotic have experienced some surprising results. “People start taking it and they’re able to oftentimes eat foods that they weren’t able to eat before and their metabolism is stronger,” she says. “They don’t get the post-lunch slump, they have more sustained energy throughout the day, so I think all these things are related to your body metabolising sugars better.” Another surprising outcome has been related to cravings, with many Pendulum customers reporting reduced cravings for sugar, while a growing number of people have seen benefits for their skin, including treating acne and eczema. “This is probably related to the inflammatory response,” Dr Cutcliffe explains. “So even though the acne shows up on your face, it’s really the inflammatory system underneath your skin that’s causing acne in a lot of cases. “So if you can strengthen your gut so that you don’t have these things going into your bloodstream, causing your inflammatory response to go up, people are actually seeing better skin outcomes.” Pendulum’s Akkermansia is now available as a daily probiotic in Australasia and can be purchased as single bottles or at a discount as a monthly subscription through Pendulum’s <a href="https://pendulumlife.co.nz/Akkermansia" target="_blank" rel="noopener">website</a>.

Body

These 60 gut microbes have evolved alongside humans since we first left Africa

When homo sapiens made their way out of Africa, they were carrying tiny little friends with them. A new study has shown those same friends – gut bacteria – have been evolving, or “codiversifying,” alongside us for the last couple of hundred thousand years. As well as allowing us to understand more about ourselves, it’s hoped the new research will also give us more information on how to treat microbiome-based diseases or create new therapies. The study – published in Science – looked at the differences and similarities between our closest bacterial friends in 1225 humans living around the world. The team found 59 bacterial species, and one archaeon, that have evolved in parallel with humans. (An archaeon are a domain of single-celled organism, originally thought to be bacteria, but are now known to be more similar to eukaryotes – multi-cellular organisms like us.) The human gut microbiome contains hundreds of species of bacteria, and many of the most prominent species are found in people worldwide, says Andrew Moeller, an evolutionary biologist at Cornell University in an accompanying paper. “Gut bacterial communities are not haphazard collections of bacteria but reflections of the distinct ancestries of human populations.” However, within microbial species, some strains can show remarkable genetic diversity between specific human populations. Whether or not this diversity arose through a shared evolutionary history between humans and their microbes hasn’t yet been fully understood. Max Planck Institute for Biology microbiologist Taichi Suzuki and his team evaluated 1225 people living in Gabon, Vietnam, and Germany and discovered 60 microbial strains that, between and within countries, have evolutionary histories that indicates codiversification. The team also found that the species displaying the strongest codiversification appear to have also independently evolved traits such as oxygen and temperature intolerance and reduced genomes, which means they really are stuck with us – also known as host dependency. “The list of human health conditions linked to the microbiome ranges from malnutrition to allergies and cardiovascular disease,” the team write in their new paper. “An awareness of differences in gut microbial strains between populations has already led to the notion that probiotics for treating malnutrition should be locally sourced. “The microbiome is a therapeutic target for personalized medicine, and our results underscore the importance of a population specific approach to microbiome-based therapies.” This article originally appeared on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/people/these-60-gut-microbes-have-evolved-with-us-for-200000-years-africa/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cosmosmagazine.com</a> and was written by Jacinta Bowler. Image: López et al. 2015

Travel Trouble

Producing electricity from your sweat might be key to next wearable technology

Imagine a world where the smart watch on your wrist never ran out of charge, because it used your sweat to power itself. It sounds like science fiction but researchers have figured out how to engineer a <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/biology/bacterial-biofilm/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">bacterial biofilm</a> to be able to produce continuous <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/electricity-from-sweaty-fingertips/">electricity fr</a><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/electricity-from-sweaty-fingertips/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">o</a><a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/electricity-from-sweaty-fingertips/">m perspiration</a>. They can harvest energy in evaporation and convert it to electricity which could revolutionise wearable electronic devices from personal medical sensors to electronics. The science is in a <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-32105-6#ref-CR7" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">new study</a> published in Nature Communications. “The limiting factor of wearable electronics has always been the power supply,” says senior author Jun Yoa, professor of electrical and computer engineering at the University of Massachusetts Amherst (UMass), in the US. “Batteries run down and have to be changed or charged. They are also bulky, heavy, and uncomfortable.” But the surface of our skin is constantly moist with sweat, so a small, thin, clear and flexible biofilm worn like a Band-Aid could provide a much more convenient alternative. The biofilm is made up of a sheet of bacterial cells approximately 40 micrometres thick or about the thickness of a sheet of paper. It’s made up a genetically engineered version of the bacteria Geobacter sulfurreducens to be exact. G. sulfurreducens is a microorganism known to <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3209890/#:~:text=Interestingly%2C%20Geobacter%20sulfurreducens%20also%20called,electron%20transfer%20through%20the%20biofilms." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">produce electricity</a> and has been used previously in “<a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41579-019-0173-x" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">microbial fuel cells</a>”. These require the bacteria to be alive, necessitating proper care and constant feeding, but this new biofilm can work continuously because the bacteria are already dead. “It’s much more efficient,” says senior author Derek Lovley, distinguished professor of Microbiology at UMass Amherst. “We’ve simplified the process of generating electricity by radically cutting back on the amount of processing needed. “We sustainably grow the cells in a biofilm, and then use that agglomeration of cells. This cuts the energy inputs, makes everything simpler and widens the potential applications.” The process relies on evaporation-based electricity production – the <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41565-018-0228-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">hydrovoltaic effect</a>. Water flow is driven by evaporation between the solid biofilm and the liquid water, which drives the transport of electrical charges to generate an electrical current. G. sulfurreducens colonies are grown in thin mats which are harvested and then have small circuits etched into them using a laser. Then they are sandwiched between mesh electrodes and finally sealed in a soft, sticky, breathable polymer which can be applied directly onto the skin without irritation. Initially, the researchers tested it by placing the device directly on a water surface, which produced approximately 0.45 volts of electricity continuously. When worn on sweaty skin it produced power for 18 hours, and even non-sweating skin generated a substantial electric output – indicating that the continuous low-level secretion of moisture from the skin is enough to drive the effect. “Our next step is to increase the size of our films to power more sophisticated skin-wearable electronics,” concludes Yao. The team aim to one day be able to power not only single devices, but entire electronic systems, using this biofilm. And because microorganisms can be mass produced with renewable feedstocks, it’s an exciting alternative for producing renewable materials for clean energy powered devices. <img id="cosmos-post-tracker" style="opacity: 0; height: 1px!important; width: 1px!important; border: 0!important; position: absolute!important; z-index: -1!important;" src="https://syndication.cosmosmagazine.com/?id=200509&title=Producing+electricity+from+your+sweat+might+be+key+to+next+wearable+technology" width="1" height="1" /> <div id="contributors"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/technology/electricity-from-sweat-biofilm/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">This article</a> was originally published on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cosmos Magazine</a> and was written by <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/contributor/imma-perfetto" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Imma Perfetto</a>. Imma Perfetto is a science writer at Cosmos. She has a Bachelor of Science with Honours in Science Communication from the University of Adelaide. Image: Liu et al., doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-32105-6 </div>

Technology

Is it safe to use makeup testers in cosmetics stores?

A woman in the US is suing a cosmetics store because she claims that she <a href="http://www.tmz.com/2017/10/30/sephora-sued-woman-herpes-lipstick-samples/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">caught herpes from their lipstick tester</a>. In case you’re wondering if this is even possible, as a microbiologist, I can tell you that it most certainly is. And it’s not just herpes that can lurk in makeup. But let’s look at herpes first. This very common virus is mainly spread by skin-to-skin contact, kissing and sex, but it can also be transmitted in droplets of spit left by an infected person on towels, cups, cutlery and, yes, lipstick. Globally, it’s estimated that <a href="http://who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2015/herpes/en/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">67% of people are infected with the Herpes simplex virus (HSV-1)</a>. But it’s a hidden enemy – a person doesn’t need to have visible signs of the virus to spread the infection. The virus lives in facial tissues where it can shed and spread. It doesn’t always show up on the skin as a blister immediately after it has infected a person, instead it can stay hidden and appear after a few months. Because of this, it’s impossible to say with certainty if the American woman caught herpes from this particular store tester, or elsewhere. Herpes causes blisters on the lips and around the mouth that can last up to ten days. Lipsticks and makeup brushes that touch these parts of the face can then spread the infection to other people. Fortunately, herpes is a fragile virus and typically only survives outside the body for ten seconds. But it can survive longer in warm and moist environments, such as in sweat. It can also survive between two to four hours on plastic, chrome and water, so there are lots of ways the virus can spread. There is no cure for a herpes infection, although treatments are available that will reduce the length of infection. <figure class="align-center "><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193000/original/file-20171102-26448-1rj3q51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193000/original/file-20171102-26448-1rj3q51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193000/original/file-20171102-26448-1rj3q51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193000/original/file-20171102-26448-1rj3q51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=375&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193000/original/file-20171102-26448-1rj3q51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193000/original/file-20171102-26448-1rj3q51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193000/original/file-20171102-26448-1rj3q51.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=471&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="" /><figcaption>Herpes blisters. <a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/download/confirm/317192864?src=pkZUIXuzGEd2PmbqE8wMGA-1-1&size=medium_jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cherries/Shutterstock</a></figcaption></figure> An old problem Microbiologists have known about the link between beauty products and pathogens since the mid-1940s when talcum powder contaminated with Clostridium tetani bacteria <a href="https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/comparative-microbiological-study-between-traditional-and-modern-cosmetics-in-saudi-arabia-2329-6674-1000146.pdf" target="_blank" rel="noopener">caused the death of a newborn baby</a>. Since the 1960s, contamination linked to other opportunistic pathogens, including <a href="https://www.omicsonline.org/open-access/comparative-microbiological-study-between-traditional-and-modern-cosmetics-in-saudi-arabia-2329-6674-1000146.php?aid=71067" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Salmonella, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a>, has been reported by microbiologists across the globe. Cosmetic products contain preservatives to help slow down the growth of microbes, but they can become contaminated if people use non-sterile applicators or fingers to apply products, or if the products are poorly handled and stored; for example, products stored in warm and humid or damp conditions such as the bathroom. Makeup brushes also have the potential to act as suitable homes for bacteria to thrive. Often, beauty blenders and brushes are dampened to help the application of eyeshadows or foundation. But this environment has the potential to promote rapid bacterial growth. In 2015, it was reported that a <a href="http://www.medicaldaily.com/mrsa-bacteria-borrowed-makeup-brush-paralyzes-27-year-old-woman-328836" target="_blank" rel="noopener">27-year-old Australian woman became paralysed after contracting an MRSA infection</a> that attacked her spine. She used a brush to apply makeup that belonged to a friend who had a Staphylococcus infection on her face, and became contaminated with the organism. Staphylococcus is a common bacteria that doesn’t typically cause harm and lives on the skin or in the nose. However, MRSA (Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) is an antibiotic-resistant strain of Staphylococcus. Irreversible blindness Mascara wands and eyeliners not only beautify the eyes, but can cause irritation and conjunctivitis, caused by both bacteria and viruses, including herpes simplex. Studies have revealed that <a href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/18171778_Microbial_Contamination_in_Ocular_Cosmetics" target="_blank" rel="noopener">43% of eyeliners and mascara wands contain contaminants</a>. I know many friends who have been left with a “pink eye” after sharing mascara or using ancient mascara that has been sitting in their makeup bags. Symptoms of pink eye include redness, watery discharge and, in extreme cases, irreversible blindness. <figure class="align-center "><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193002/original/file-20171102-26478-159by18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/193002/original/file-20171102-26478-159by18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193002/original/file-20171102-26478-159by18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193002/original/file-20171102-26478-159by18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=425&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193002/original/file-20171102-26478-159by18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193002/original/file-20171102-26478-159by18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/193002/original/file-20171102-26478-159by18.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=534&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="" /><figcaption>Eyelashes trap dirt and bacteria. <a class="source" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=608771" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Steve Jurvetson/Wikimedia Commons</a></figcaption></figure> Lashes aren’t just there to make us look pretty, they serve to block out dirt and bacteria, and using products on the eyes can cause contamination of the product. With time, bacteria can build up in the cosmetic container increasing the risk of eye infection every time the product is used. If all of these horror stories tell us one thing, it’s stay away from sharing makeup products, both among your friends and especially in cosmetic stores. You just don’t know what infections other people could be carrying on their skin. Always keep your own cosmetic products clean and use single applicators where possible. You wouldn’t share your toothbrush with strangers, so why make an exception with your cosmetics?<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/86635/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/amreen-bashir-419764" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Amreen Bashir</a>, Lecturer in Biomedical Science, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/aston-university-1107" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Aston University</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-it-safe-to-use-makeup-testers-in-cosmetics-stores-86635" target="_blank" rel="noopener">original article</a>. Image: Getty Images

Beauty & Style

What really causes pimples and acne?

<div> <div class="copy"> <h2>What causes acne?</h2> It afflicts millions of people each year, according to the <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://www.aad.org/" target="_blank">American Academy of Dermatology</a>. But is it true that hormones and carbohydrate-filled foods really cause the biggest symptom of acne – pimples? Hair follicles produce an oil known as sebum, which limits the amount of water entering our skin. But when too much sebum is produced, it feeds a <a rel="noreferrer noopener" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/biology/charting-the-molecular-diversity-on-human-skin/" target="_blank">bacterium living in your skin</a> known as Propionibacterium acnes, causing your immune system to flush blood and white blood cells to the area. And if the follicle clogs up, a pimple forms. It’s also thought carb-rich foods contribute to acne, as they increase a compound in your body known as insulin-like growth factor 1, which turns up sebum production. Androgens – a family of hormones including testosterone – also boost your body’s sebum production, leading to more pimples. Puberty and menstruation both cause significant hormonal changes, making teenagers prime candidates for acne and causing many women to break out around the time of their period. <div class="embed-container"><iframe class="note-video-clip responsive-embed" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/KrMbwDil1hc" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></div> Check out the American Chemical Society’s video above for more, as well as tips on how to minimise and control acne. Image credits: Getty Images</div> <div id="contributors"> This article was originally published on <a rel="noopener" href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/biology/what-causes-acne-and-pimples/" target="_blank">cosmosmagazine.com</a> and was written by Jana Howden. </div> </div>

Body

How gut bacteria could affect your mental health

As we continue to investigate the causes and potential treatments of mental health disorders, a growing amount of evidence suggests the microscopic inhabitants of our gut can impact our mental health. “If you would have asked a neuroscientist 10 years ago whether they thought the gut microbiota could be linked to depression, many of them would have said you were crazy,” said Jeroen Raes, a systems biologist and microbiologist at KU Leuven in Belgium. What is the gut microbiome? Microbes, which include bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other microscopic living things, live inside the intestines and on the skin. Most of the trillions of these microbes live in a “pocket” of the large intestine called the cecum, and are known as the gut microbiome. The majority of the microbes studied so far have been bacteria, and up to 1000 species can live in the gut. Each species plays a different role in the body, with some being extremely important for your health and others potentially causing disease. Bacteria and mental health Decades of animal model research and small studies of humans have pointed to a link between mental health and the gut microbiome, with researchers now attempting to identify the specific microbes that could be influencing the brain. For example, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41564-018-0337-x">a study</a> published by Raes and colleagues in Nature Microbiology examined the correlation between features of a person’s microbiome, their quality of life, and their level of depression. The researchers found that patients with depression had lower levels of two species of bacteria - Coproccus and Dialister - when compared to healthy controls. A separate team <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/5/2/eaau8317">later reported</a> the abundance of several types of bacteria correlated with the severity of schizophrenia. They also found that individuals with schizophrenia could be frequently differentiated from healthy subjects based on the presence of specific microbes. Another study looking at the mechanisms that could drive these mental health disorders transplanted stool samples into mice and monitored their behaviour. They found that mice receiving transplants from schizophrenia patients were more hyperactive and exerted more effort during a swim test than mice receiving stool transplants from healthy patients. The mice also had different levels of neurotransmitters which are essential for brain function, and the levels in the brains of mice with transplants from schizophrenia patients reflected the chemical patterns found in the patients, according to study coauthor Julio Licinio, a psychiatrist at SUNY Upstate Medical University in Syracuse. Why this matters Though research in mice might be less translational to humans, these studies are useful for finding markers that could be tested to aid in diagnosis. To negate factors such as stress that could affect the behaviour of the mice, Raes and his colleagues’ study looked at the microbiome differences between healthy and depressed individuals. The bacteria they found were missing in depressed individuals were examined to determine whether they could produce or break down neuroactive compounds in the gut. For example, the genomes of Coproccus contain DNA sequences that can generate DOPAC, a product of breakdown of dopamine, which is associated with depression when depleted. Though the findings don’t confirm that lower levels of these species of bacteria correlate with depression, they offer a potential direction for possible pathways and therapeutic targets for these mental health disorders. “Microbiology is not simple, because it involves ecologies,” said University of Florida psychologist Bruce Stevens. “You can’t take down one bacterium without taking down the whole nest, so translation to treatment is going to be tough. A single species won’t do it.”

Mind

Are your towels secretly filthy?

We are all conscious of the dirt on our hands and the germs that can lurk there, but what about the germs festering on the towels in our homes, particularly in kitchens and bathrooms? It has been revealed kitchen towels are rampant little breeding grounds for germs and nasty bacteria. Bits of raw food and dirt can easily build up on the towels throughout the day and should be washed daily. Expert Home Tips has advised that the towels need a good 60-degree cycle in your washing machine to banish the germs. Surprisingly our bathroom towels are equally as bad. Damp towels become the perfect breeding grounds for growing bacteria. And if that’s not bad enough, when you dry yourself after a shower, you’re ridding your body of dead skin cells which also accumulate on the towel. Today.com shared that washing towels separately every three days in warm water followed by a low heat tumble dry is “the best way to wash towels”. How often do you wash your kitchen and bathroom towels? Let us know in the comments below.

Caring

Guess what's the biggest germ culprit at the airport?

You’re all packed for your overseas holiday and you’re doing a last-minute check before catching a taxi to the airport. Passport? Check. Travel insurance? Check. Hand sanitiser? Wait, what? Just one more thing to remember As if packing for a holiday is not stressful enough, now you have to make sure you don’t forget the hand sanitiser when you’re heading to the airport for your overseas trip. Here’s why. According to a new study published in the <a href="https://bmcinfectdis.biomedcentral.com/track/pdf/10.1186/s12879-018-3150-5">BMC Infectious Diseases</a> journal by experts from the University of Nottingham in the UK and the Finnish National Institute for Health and Welfare, the biggest culprit for spreading germs in airports is the plastic tray where you place your personal items as you pass through security checks. Yes, you read that right. Your phone, wallet, keys, laptop, jacket and various other accoutrements have to share a snug, germ-filled receptacle. The team came to this conclusion after swabbing different surfaces at Helsinki-Vantaa airport in Helsinki, Finland, during the winter of 2016. The most common virus detected in the study was the rhinovirus, the cause of the common cold. There were also traces of the Influenza A virus. Other germ-filled culprits include shop payment terminals, staircase rails, passport checking counters, children’s play areas and even in the air. One of the study’s authors advises that “people can help minimise contagion by hygienic hand washing and coughing into a handkerchief, tissue or sleeve at all times but especially in public places.” Or you can keep a travel-size bottle of hand sanitiser handy and clean your hands every time you touch common surfaces. Just remember, if you’re bringing a bottle in your carry-on luggage, make sure you adhere to the rules on liquids and gels – the maximum size for each container is 100ml. Written by Siti Rohani. This article first appeared in <a href="http://www.readersdigest.com.au/healthsmart/conditions/flu/guess-whats-biggest-germ-culprit-airport">Reader’s Digest</a>. For more of what you love from the world’s best-loved magazine, <a href="https://www.isubscribe.com.au/Readers-Digest-Magazine-Subscription.cfm">here’s our best subscription offer</a>. <img style="width: 100px !important; height: 100px !important;" src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/7820640/1.png" alt="" data-udi="umb://media/f30947086c8e47b89cb076eb5bb9b3e2" />

International Travel

The dirty manicures to watch out for

New research has uncovered the type of nail polish that harbours the most bacteria after hands are sanitised. The study, published in the American Journal of Infection Control, found that gel nails, or Shellac, retain the most bacteria after cleaning. For the study, researchers compared the nails of healthcare workers with standard polish, gel polish and those whose nails were left unpainted. They then measured the bacterial contamination over 14 days. The study, which evaluated more than 700 bacterial cultures, found that all types of nails became contaminated over time regardless of the product applied, but gels were the worst. Acrylic nails aren’t recommended for healthcare workers as sanitising hands is more difficult, but researchers explained that little is still known about gel products. Gel nails require curing or hardening under an ultraviolet light and are popular because it is believed they are gentler on natural nails. Shellac nail polish has risen in popularity over recent years due to celebrity endorsement. Which type of nail polish do you use? Let us know in the comments below.

Body

Horrifying images reveal how your smartphone has more bacteria than a toilet seat

Researches have shared horrifying images that show just how much bacteria, mould and yeast smartphones are covered in. The new study found that some smartphones have up to ten times as much bacteria as a toilet seat, with screens being the most problematic area of the phone. The other dirty areas include the back of the handset, the lock button and the home button, according to the study by Insurance2go. The results come as more than a third of people in the UK admitted to never cleaning their phones, with just one in 20 cleaning their device once every six months. <img width="500" height="500" src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/7820069/1_500x500.jpg" alt="1 (180)"/> The researchers took swabs from an iPhone 6, Samsung Galaxy 8 and a Google Pixel to test for levels of bacteria, yeast and mould. For all three brands, the screens reported the highest levels of bacteria, with 100 CFU (colony forming units) per cm2 for the Samsung Galaxy, 40 CFU for the iPhone and 12 CFU for the Google Pixel. <img width="500" height="500" src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/7820070/2_500x500.jpg" alt="2 (104)"/> An office keyboard and mouse had 5 CFU per cm2 of yeast and bacteria, while a toilet seat and flush had 24 CFU. The study also found that a beauty blender had 24 CFU per cm2 and a makeup brush had 0.4 CFU with high levels of mould. <img width="500" height="479" src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/7820071/3_500x479.jpg" alt="3 (38)"/> Dr Shirin Lakhani from Elite Aesthetics warned that the high levels of germs on our phones can lead to skin problems. “Our smartphones are a really big source of skin contamination and skin problems; namely acne,” she said. “High concentrations of microscopic bacteria from your phone's screen mixed with oil and makeup from the skin, along with heat from the phone, breeds more bacteria. This can clog pores and often result in inflammation and acne. “To combat these problems, use a headset when on the phone for a lengthy period of time and regularly wipe your smartphone with an alcohol wipe to remove as much bacteria as possible before using it.” Commenting on the research, Gary Beeston from Insurance2Go added: “Our phones are never far from our sides; we take them everywhere with us. Therefore, it's inevitable that they'll pick up a few germs along the way.” “In our experiment, we took the germs that are normally lurking on our phones invisibly and placed them in ideal growing conditions to help people see the potential hidden germs. “Perhaps we don't realise quite how infectious our phones can be considering we're holding them against our faces.” How regularly do you clean your mobile phone? Let us know in the comments below.

Technology

Can you get food poisoning from your tea towel?

Once upon a time it was the good old chopping board that was the major culprit for bacteria in the kitchen. However, a <a href="http://www.abstractsonline.com/pp8/#!/4623/presentation/15470">new study</a> has cited that the common tea towel is another breeding ground for harmful bacteria in your kitchen. Tests on 100 cloth towels were performed by researchers at the University of Mauritius and collected the data from participants over a month. The disturbing results found 49 out of the 100 samples contained bacterial growth, including E. Coli (Escherichia Coli) and MRSA (Staphylococcus Aureus). The research also found that E. Coli was more likely to generate on damp tea towels that had been left to sit, while MRSA bacteria had higher rates of detection in households with non-vegetarian eaters (meat, poultry, seafood etc). <img width="400" height="300" src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/7819491/2-tea-towel.jpg" alt="2 Tea Towel"/> Lead author Dr Susheela D. Biranjia-Hurdoyal, a senior lecturer in the Department of Health Sciences at the University of Mauritius, said: “The data indicated that unhygienic practices while handling non-vegetarian food could be common in the kitchen.” It was also found that households comprising of large families and those of a lower socio-economic background were prone to having higher rates of bacteria on their tea towels. “Humid towels and multipurpose usage of kitchen towels should be discouraged,” Dr Biranjia-Hurdoyal added. “Bigger families with children and elderly members should be especially vigilant to hygiene in the kitchen.” Symptoms of food poisoning include severe stomach cramps, diarrhoea, nausea, vomiting, minor headaches and fever.

Body

Virgin stops serving food after bacteria scare

Virgin Australia has temporarily stopped serving food from its Los Angeles-based caterer after deadly listeria was found in the kitchen. Listeria is bacteria that is associated with miscarriages and stillbirths. As well as Virgin, Delta and America Airlines also suspended the use of food from Gate Gourmet at Los Angeles International Airport. The bacteria was found in a non-food preparation area of the caterer’s kitchen at the airport. Virgin Australia passengers were given food vouchers before boarding their flights at LAX as the airline found alternate catering arrangements. Gate Gourmet said the listeria was discovered during a routine inspection but no cases of listeriosis had previously been reported. Delta said it found a different caterer to provide hot food but still got cheese, fruit and wraps that were prepared in another part of the Gate Gourmet facility, reported Associated Press. Gate Gourmet spokeswoman Catherine Nugent said the listeria was not found on food-contact surfaces. She said the business launched a cleaning program and the LAX kitchen met all local and US food-safety regulations. Listeria can cause serious complications for pregnant woman including miscarriages and stillbirths.

International Travel

Blowing out birthday cake candles has disgusting consequences

New research has suggested blowing out the candles on your birthday cake has some disgusting consequences that might just put you off a slice at your next party. A study published in the <a href="http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/jfr/article/view/67217" target="_blank">Journal of Food Research</a> found that this much-loved tradition actually increases the amount of bacteria on a cake by 1,400 per cent. “Some people blow on the cake and they don't transfer any bacteria,” study co-author Paul Dawson explained to The Atlantic. “Whereas you have one or two people who really for whatever reason ... transfer a lot of bacteria.” The study’s authors were quick to point out that the transfer or oral bacteria didn’t necessarily indicate that taking a slice of birthday cake was going to make you sick. “It's not a big health concern in my perspective,” Dawson added. “In reality if you did this 100,000 times, then the chance of getting sick would probably be very minimal.” What are your thoughts?

Body

Sneezed bacteria travels farther than you think – and lasts longer

It’s cold and flu season and the sounds of coughs and sneezes are commonplace in the air. But don’t get lax on following the well-worn advice of covering your mouth and washing your hands, because Australian researchers have discovered how far sneezed and coughed bacteria spreads and how long it remains in the air – and it’s worse than you thought. Scientists at Queensland University of Technology found a subset of pseudomonas aeruginosa, a bacterial species associated with hospital infections, expelled from a sneeze or cough can hang around in the air for as long as 45 minutes after. The force of a sneeze or cough can also propel the bacteria up to four metres. <iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/9qqHOKUXY5U" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe> This video uses high-speed imaging to show how far some cough and sneeze droplets travel after a sneeze. "Our previous research had found that these pathogens travelled up to four metres and stayed viable for 45 minutes after being coughed into the air," Lidia Morawska, co-lead researcher and Director of the International Laboratory for Air Quality and Health,<a href="https://www.qut.edu.au/news/news?news-id=118758"> said in a statement</a>. "We wanted to find out how bacteria-carrying droplets expelled by sneezes or coughs travel such distances and remain able to infect other people after such a long time." Professor Morawska said the research team found that the bacteria in the cough droplets decayed in two different time spans. “As soon as cough droplets hit the air they rapidly dry out, cool and become light enough to stay airborne. They also partly degrade through contact with oxygen in the air, with larger droplets taking much longer to evaporate. “We found that the concentration of active bacteria in the dried droplets showed rapid decay with a 10-second half-life for most of the bacteria but a subset of bacteria had a half-life of more than 10 minutes,” she said. “This suggests some of the pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteria are resistant to rapid biological decay and thus remain viable in room air long enough to form an airborne infection risk, especially to people with respiratory problems such as patients with cystic fibrosis.” So make sure next time you feel a sneezing fit coming on, full cover your mouth and wash your hands after!

Body

8 germ hot spots worse than your toilet seat

You may consider yourself a clean freak, never touching bus poles or the buttons at pedestrian crossings and all that, but there are plenty of places where germs lurk that you may have never thought about. Da da da dum! Approach these spots with caution… 1. Fridge seals Considering what you keep in there, you want to keep your fridge spick and span, right? The University of Arizona surveyed 160 homes to find that 83 per cent of fridge seals tested positive for mould and mildew. The same goes for the rubber cushioning that surrounds your dishwasher. Take a close look at the edges and make sure you wipe them at least once a week with disinfectant or a bleach solution. 2. Cracks in crockery Ever noticed a crack in your crockery? That old dish may look clean, but that crack is likely to harbour thousands of germs and bacteria. The same applies with chopping boards. If it starts to develop deep marks from knife cuts, it’s time to replace. 3. Vacuum cleaner You may associate your Hoover with cleanliness, but it’s one of the most germ-laden appliances in your possession. Your vacuum chamber houses much more than harmless hair and dust bunnies. A <a href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/02/bacteria-vacuum-dust-mold-aerosolized-_n_4018864.html" target="_blank">study</a> published in the journal of Applied and Environmental Microbiology shows that vacuum bags and brushes are riddled with spreadable bacteria – with some even carrying antibiotic resistance genes. Thoroughly clean any compartments and attachments with dish soap and warm water, run an old comb over the brush and clear residue from the filter. 4. Reusable shopping bags You may be saving the environment, but you could also be harming yourself. A 2012 Berkeley University <a href="http://blogs.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/SSRN-id2196481.pdf" target="_blank">study</a> found an increase in emergency room admissions due to food poisoning in San Francisco following the city’s 2007 ban on plastic bags, suggesting a possible correlation. Another <a href="https://uanews.arizona.edu/story/reusable-grocery-bags-contaminated-with-e-coli-other-bacteria" target="_blank">study</a> found E. coli bacteria present on 12 per cent of bags sampled. Don’t go throwing yours out just yet. Just make sure you wipe them down with a paper cloth sprayed with all-purpose cleaner or white vinegar (and let them dry completely) to prevent cross-contamination. 5. Welcome mat Don’t even think about resting your bags on the welcome mat as you fiddle for your keys. The area around your door is the filthiest in your house. Just think about where you traipse and what you scrape your shoes against throughout the day – airports, train stations, public restroom puddles. One <a href="http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20080422005375/en/Germ-Tracker-Study-Reveals-High-Bacteria-Levels" target="_blank">study</a> found that nearly 96 per cent of shoes had traces of coliform, including fecal bacteria. You don’t just greet your guests, but also the army of germs that accompany them on their footwear. Keep shoes at the door, if possible, and give your welcome mat a a spray with disinfectant whenever you can. 6. Oven knobs and handles They may not look particularly dirty, but they’re easy targets for contamination, frequently touched and exposed to pathogens such as E. coli and staph, which can make the whole household sick. The bacteria from your hands and grease from your cooking creates a grotty build-up you don’t want anywhere near your food. Don’t forget them in your cleaning routine! A regular wipe down with white vinegar or antibacterial spray will do the trick. 7. Toothbrush holder Your toothbrush holder is so filthy it gives your toilet bowl a run for its money. They’re perpetually moist and typically situated near the toilet, catching the floating particles of fecal bacteria that catapult into the air every time you flush. (N.B. The same applies to your toothbrush.) Additionally, toothbrushes holders are often neglected in the cleaning process, providing an ideal breeding ground for bacteria. Throw yours into the dishwasher tonight. 8. Washing machine If you put something ridden with bacteria in the washing machine, where does that bacteria end up? Lower temperature cycles aren’t strong enough to kill it, encouraging breeding and transferring germs from your undies to your tea towels. Yuck! They may smell fresh, but don’t be lulled in a false sense of security and cleanliness! Always wash towels, household linen, socks and underwear on a higher temperature, sanitising your dirtiest items with a 10 per cent bleach solution. Take wet laundry out as soon as it’s done and leave the lid open between washes. Written by Kathleen Lee-Joe. First appeared on <a href="http://www.domain.com.au/" target="_blank">Domain.com.au.</a> Related links: <a href="/lifestyle/home-garden/2016/09/how-often-you-really-should-wash-your-sheets-towels-and-curtains/">How often you really should wash your sheets, towels and curtains</a> <a href="/lifestyle/home-garden/2016/08/20-fixes-for-household-problems/">20 must-know fixes for everyday household problems</a> <a href="/lifestyle/home-garden/2016/08/how-to-clean-your-bathroom-like-a-professional/">How to clean your bathroom like a professional</a>

Home & Garden

Shocking new research challenges the “five-second rule”

We’ve looked at the so-called <a href="/news/news/2016/07/the-truth-about-eating-food-that-falls-on-the-floor/" target="_blank">“five-second rule”</a> before and why it might not be the most air-tight theory, and it seems new research is backing the naysayers. A recent study from Rutgers University in New Jersey claims to disprove the “five-second rule”, rumoured to have been made famous by legendary chef Julia Child, once and for all. Researchers tested the long-standing urban myth by dropping four different foods (watermelon, bread, bread with butter and gummy lollies) on four different surfaces (stainless steel, ceramic tile, wood and carpet) and leaving them there for periods of one second, five seconds, 30 seconds and 300 seconds. While it’s true that more time on the floor typically means more bacteria, the scientists actually found that it’s the type of food that matters most. Watermelon, due to its moistness, picked up the most germs on every surface. Surprisingly, gummy lollies picked up the least. You may also be shocked to learn that carpet in fact had the lowest rate of bacteria transfer, with ceramic tiles and stainless steel proving to have a higher transfer rate of germs. “The 5-second rule is a significant oversimplification of what actually happens when bacteria transfer from a surface to food,” researcher Donald Schaffner <a href="http://news.rutgers.edu/research-news/rutgers-researchers-debunk-%E2%80%98five-second-rule%E2%80%99-eating-food-floor-isn%E2%80%99t-safe/20160908#.V9hzJih96M" target="_blank">said</a>. “Bacteria can contaminate instantaneously.” What do you think of the results of this study? Will you still abide by the “five-second rule”? Share your thoughts with us in the comments below. Related links: <a href="/news/news/2016/08/drinking-from-a-reusable-bottle-is-dirty-as-a-toilet/">This one habit is “as dirty as licking your toilet”</a> <a href="/news/news/2016/08/half-of-snacks-labelled-natural-are-unhealthy/">Almost half of snacks labelled “natural” are unhealthy</a> <a href="/news/news/2016/08/common-ingredient-more-dangerous-than-sugar/">This common ingredient is more dangerous than sugar</a>

News

6 dirtiest places on a plane revealed

Get the hand sanitiser ready. A lot of places inside an airplane cabin are seriously dirty – and it might not be the ones you think. 1. Tray table That’s right – the spot you eat your food from is the single dirtiest place onboard. A recent study found that the tables contain more than 2,000 ‘colony forming units’, a technical measure for the number of bacterial or fungal cells that can multiply, per square inch. That’s around twice as many as the next dirtiest area onboard. So you might want to give the tray a wipe before you tuck in. 2. Seat pockets They look like a convenient place to store your books, magazines, wallet or snacks. But in reality, many people use those pockets as a rubbish bin rather than a storage unit. Used tissues, food wrappers, chewing gum, even dirty nappies have been known to make their way in there. You might want to keep your things on your lap. 3. Water fountains It’s important to stay hydrated in the air, though you may want to steer clear of the drinking fountains. The handles of these were found to be the second dirtiest thing on a plane, with around 1,000 colony forming units per square inch. Avoid them altogether and drink out of your own water bottle. 4. Bathroom This one should come as no surprise. With around one bathroom for every 50 passengers, airplane bathrooms can be a breeding ground for unhealthy and dangerous bacteria like E. coli. The lever to flush the toilet is generally the dirtiest place, so wash your hands thoroughly after using it and apply some hand sanitiser once you’re back at your seat. 5. Overhead air vent The vents represent a double danger. Not only can you get germs on your hands from touching them, the air flow can blow germs right into your face. Try to avoid touching the vent and, if you’re really concerned, turn it off so that no air flow is coming through. 6. Seat headrest Lice anyone? Often there is no cleaning of the headrest area between passengers, so you could be leaning your head against the exact same spot as everyone else who has been on that plane today. The easiest thing to do is bring a small towel or cloth to drape over it and protect yourself – just be sure not to block the video screen of the person behind you. Did you realise these are the dirtiest parts of a plane? Do you have any trip plans on the cards? Let us know in the comments below. Related links: <a href="/travel/travel-tips/2016/08/5-foods-you-must-never-eat-on-a-flight/">5 foods you must never eat on a flight</a> <a href="/travel/travel-tips/2016/08/5-sounds-you-hear-on-the-plane-explained/">5 strange sounds you hear during a flight explained</a> <a href="/travel/travel-tips/2016/08/secret-way-to-raise-the-armrest-on-your-aisle-seat/">There is a secret way to raise the armrest on your aisle seat</a>

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