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Ancient insect calls for update to Jurassic Park soundtrack

For the past 150 years, the single known specimen of a species of katydid-like insect known as <a href="http://orthoptera.speciesfile.org/Common/basic/Taxa.aspx?TaxonNameID=1129138" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Prophalangopsis obscura</a> has sat quietly in the London Natural History Museum but now some scientists have worked out what it would have sounded like. A British/Austrian team, used some seriously fancy equipment and an understanding of the physics of insect acoustics to work out what this species would have sounded like when it sang for a mate, giving insight into the ancient insect soundscape of the Jurassic period. Katydids are grasshoppers and crickets. This holotype, or single known specimen, is one of only eight remaining species from the 90 or so which were abundant during the Jurassic period. The research team has shown the sounds produced by this particular insect would have been similar to, although distinguishable from, other related species around this period. <figure class="wp-block-audio"><audio src="../wp-content/uploads/2022/08/journal.pone_.0270498.s002.wav?x88132" controls="controls"></audio><figcaption>The reconstructed calling song of Prophalangopsis obscura. Credit: Woodrow et al. 2002/PLOS ONE, CC-BY 4.0</figcaption></figure> The chirp produced by P. obscura is a pure tone, emitted at around 4.7 kHz — well-within the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10924/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">range of human hearing</a>. Aside from helping researchers understand what the insect world sounded like when dinosaurs roamed the Earth some 145 to 201 million years ago, the findings also suggest that early insects of this type were limited to frequencies below 20 kHz. <div class="newsletter-box"> </div> This is important because the other species of Prophalangopsis known today have evolved to be flightless, using their wings exclusively for sound production and attracting a mate. These evolved species have also developed ultrasonic sound production organs to assist in deterring ground-based predators. That P. obscura retained its ability to fly — even just short distances — and did not develop ultrasonic capabilities, suggests it followed a different evolutionary path to the other species still in existence today, giving extra insight into the evolution of this species and their relatives. But, how do you hear an insect that has been dead for 150 years? Like katydids and their relatives, P. obscura, produced sound by scraping one of its wings with a ‘file’ (or row of teeth). These vibrations would then by amplified by special structures within the insect’s wing and radiated out into the surrounding environment. Scientists at the University of Lincoln, the Natural History Museum, London, UK and Karl-Franzens-University, Graz, Austria used a technique called micro-scanning Laser-Doppler Vibrometry (LDV) to scan and then reconstruct the wings and sound-producing organs of the holotype. They then applied knowledge of close relatives of the species, they were then able to infer the “carrier frequency” (the central frequency at which the <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jeb.13179" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">overall sound reaches its maximum energy</a>). Due to its low frequency and pure tone, the song P. obscura sang may have reverberated far and wide across the Jurassic landscape. <img id="cosmos-post-tracker" style="opacity: 0; height: 1px!important; width: 1px!important; border: 0!important; position: absolute!important; z-index: -1!important;" src="https://syndication.cosmosmagazine.com/?id=201424&title=Ancient+insect+calls+for+update+to+Jurassic+Park+soundtrack" width="1" height="1" /> <div id="contributors"> <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/science/biology/ancient-insect-jurassic-sound/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">This article</a> was originally published on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cosmos Magazine</a> and was written by <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/contributor/clare-kenyon" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Clare Kenyon</a>. Clare Kenyon is a science writer for Cosmos. She is currently wrangling the death throes of her PhD in astrophysics, has a Masters in astronomy and another in education, and has classroom experience teaching high school science, maths and physics. Clare also has diplomas in music and criminology and a graduate certificate of leadership and learning. Image: Charlie Woodrow </div>

Family & Pets

Help insects flourish from your backyard

As winter phases into spring across the U.S., gardeners are laying in supplies and making plans. Meanwhile, as the weather warms, common garden insects such as bees, beetles and butterflies will emerge from underground burrows or nests within or on plants. Most gardeners know how beneficial insects can be for their plots. <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/animals/flies.shtml" target="_blank">Flies pollinate flowers</a>. Predatory bugs, such as the <a rel="noopener" href="http://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/beneficial/podisus_maculiventris.htm" target="_blank">spined shoulder bug</a>, eat pest insects that otherwise would tuck into garden plants. As a <a rel="noopener" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=tzo9De0AAAAJ&hl=en" target="_blank">scientist whose research involves insects</a> and as a gardener, I know that <a rel="noopener" href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2023989118" target="_blank">many beneficial insect species are declining</a> and <a rel="noopener" href="https://theconversation.com/is-an-insect-apocalypse-happening-how-would-we-know-113170" target="_blank">need humans’ help</a>. If you’re a gardener looking for a new challenge this year, consider revamping all or part of your yard to support beneficial insects. <iframe width="440" height="260" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/H-iIgTNdmRo?wmode=transparent&start=0" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen=""></iframe> Ladybugs, lacewings, spiders, earthworms and honey bees are among the most beneficial common garden animals. Lawns are insect food deserts Some gardeners <a rel="noopener" href="https://plants.usda.gov/checklist.html" target="_blank">choose native plants</a> to attract and support helpful insects. Often, however, those native plants are surrounded by vast expanses of lawn. The vast majority of insect species find blades of grass as unappetizing as we do. Yet, lawns sprawl out across many public and private spaces. <a rel="noopener" href="https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Lawn" target="_blank">NASA estimated in 2005</a> that lawns covered at least 50,000 square miles (128,000 square kilometers) of the U.S. – about the size of the entire state of Mississippi. A well-manicured lawn is a sure sign that humanity has imposed its will on nature. Lawns provide an accessible and familiar landscape, but they come at a cost for our six-legged neighbors. Grasses grown as turf provide very few places for insects to safely tuck themselves away, because homeowners and groundskeepers cut them short – before they send up flowering spikes – and apply fertilizers and pesticides to keep them green. Entomologists have a recomendation: Dig up some fraction of your lawn and convert it into a meadow by <a rel="noopener" href="https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2002547117" target="_blank">replacing grass with native wildflowers</a>. Wildflowers provide pollen and nectar that feed and attract a variety of insects like ants, native bees and butterflies. Just as you may have a favorite local restaurant, insects that live around you have a taste for the flowers that are native to their areas. This bold choice will not just benefit insects. Healthier insects support local birds, and meadows require fewer chemical inputs and less mowing than lawns. The amount of attention lawns demand from us, even if we outsource the work to a landscaping company, is a sign of their precarity. A meadow is a wilder, more resilient option. Resilient ecosystems are better able to respond to and recover from disturbances. Entomologist <a rel="noopener" href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=3EsB164AAAAJ&hl=en" target="_blank">Ryan Gott</a>, integrated pest management and quality control specialist at Maitri Genetics in Pittsburgh, describes lawns and meadows as two opposite ends of a resiliency spectrum. “As far as basic ecological functions go, a lawn does not have many. A lawn mainly extracts nutrition and water, usually receiving outside inputs of fertilizer and irrigation to stay alive, and returns very little to the system,” he told me. Native flowers, by definition, will grow well in your climate, although some areas will have more choices than others and growing seasons vary. Native plants also provide a palette of colors and variety that lawns sorely lack. By planting them as a meadow, with many different flowers emerging throughout the growing season, you can provide for a diverse assortment of local insects. And mowing and fertilizing less will leave you more time to appreciate wildlife of all sizes. There are many different types of meadows, and every wildflower species has different preferences for soil type and conditions. Meadows thrive in full sunlight, which is also where lawns typically do well. Making insects feel at home Not every yard can support a meadow, but there are other ways to be a better, more considerate neighbor to insects. If you have a shady yard, consider modeling your garden after natural landscapes like woodlands that are shady and support insects. What’s important in landscaping with insects in mind, or “entoscaping,” is <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.amentsoc.org/insects/insects-and-man/gardening-for-insects.html" target="_blank">considering insects early and often</a> when you visit the garden store. With a few pots or window boxes, even a balcony can be converted into a cozy insect oasis. If you’re gardenless, you can still support insect health. Try replacing white outdoor lights, which <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/light-pollution-contributes-insect-apocalypse-180973642/" target="_blank">interfere with many insects’ feeding and breeding patterns</a>. White lights also lure insects into swarms, where they are vulnerable to predators. <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.sciencealert.com/scientists-have-figured-out-the-type-of-light-bulb-to-use-if-you-want-to-avoid-insects" target="_blank">Yellow bulbs or warm-hued LEDs</a> don’t have these effects. Another easy project is using scrap wood and packing materials to create simple “hotels” for <a rel="noopener" href="https://modernfarmer.com/2017/02/build-native-bee-hotel/" target="_blank">bees</a> or <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.hgtv.com/design/make-and-celebrate/handmade/craft-a-ladybug-hotel" target="_blank">ladybugs</a>, making sure to carefully sanitize them between seasons. Easiest of all, <a rel="noopener" href="https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=26345" target="_blank">provide water for insects to drink</a> – they’re adorable to watch as they sip. Replace standing water at least weekly to prevent mosquitoes from developing. <a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390417/original/file-20210318-23-16piil9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/390417/original/file-20210318-23-16piil9.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" alt="Butterflies on a pebbled pathway." /></a> Giant swallowtail (left) and Palamedes swallowtail (right) drinking water from a puddle. <a rel="noopener" href="https://flic.kr/p/PGuLZ" target="_blank" class="source">K. Draper/Flickr</a>, <a rel="noopener" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/" target="_blank" class="license">CC BY-ND</a> A refuge in every yard Many resources across the U.S. offer advice on converting your lawn or making your yard more insect-friendly. The Xerces Society for Insect Conservation publishes a <a rel="noopener" href="https://xerces.org/publications/guidelines/establishing-pollinator-meadows-from-seed" target="_blank">guide to establishing meadows</a> to sustain insects. Local university extension offices <a rel="noopener" href="https://extension.unh.edu/resource/planting-pollinators-establishing-wildflower-meadow-seed-fact-sheet" target="_blank">post tips on growing meadows</a> with specific instructions and resources for their areas. Gardening stores often have experience and carry selections of local plants. You may find established communities of enthusiasts for local plants and seeds, or your journey could be the start of such a group. Part of the fun of gardening is learning what plants need to be healthy, and a new endeavor like entoscaping will provide fresh challenges. In my view, humans all too often see ourselves as separate from nature, which leads us to relegate biodiversity to designated parks. In fact, however, we are an important part of the natural world, and <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.si.edu/spotlight/buginfo/benefits" target="_blank">we need insects</a> just as much as they need us. As ecologist <a rel="noopener" href="https://www.udel.edu/canr/departments/entomology-and-wildlife-ecology/faculty-staff/doug-tallamy/" target="_blank">Douglas Tallamy</a> argues in his book, “<a rel="noopener" href="https://www.workman.com/products/natures-best-hope" target="_blank">Nature’s Best Hope</a>,” the best way to protect biodiversity is for people to plant native plants and promote conservation in every yard.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important; text-shadow: none !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/153609/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a rel="noopener" href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/brian-lovett-1032419" target="_blank">Brian Lovett</a>, Postdoctoral Researcher in Mycology, <a rel="noopener" href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/west-virginia-university-1375" target="_blank">West Virginia University</a> This article is republished from <a rel="noopener" href="https://theconversation.com" target="_blank">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a rel="noopener" href="https://theconversation.com/to-help-insects-make-them-welcome-in-your-garden-heres-how-153609" target="_blank">original article</a>. Image: Getty Images

Home & Garden

Why eating insects is good for you

Does the idea of eating insects bug you? Well, think about this: the United Nations predicts that by 2050, if current trends continue, the <a href="https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/">world’s population will reach 9.8 billion</a>. As a result, <a href="http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/How_to_Feed_the_World_in_2050.pdf">global demand for food and feed is expected to increase by 70 per cent</a>, putting additional pressure on already overexploited agricultural resources. Global demand for meat in particular will continue to increase as dietary habits in developing countries change, due to rapid urbanization and economic growth. The oceans are already over-exploited and climate change will have a profound impact on food production. Meanwhile, <a href="http://www.fao.org/state-of-food-security-nutrition/en/">nearly one billion people worldwide suffer from chronic food deprivation</a>. Among the possible solutions, one is quietly making its way into the public’s attention: eating insects. Alternatives to animal protein <a href="http://www.fao.org/edible-insects/en/">To meet current and future food challenges</a>, the agri-food sector needs to be rethought. We need to find new ways to grow food, address inefficiencies and develop new approaches to production methods. In addition to population growth, urbanization and the rise of the middle class in developing countries are increasing global demand for food, especially animal protein. The production of traditional feed ingredients such as cereals, fish meal and oilseeds must be reduced and substitutes found to make more efficient use of resources. The billions of animals raised each year for food are putting increasing pressure on land and water resources and contributing to climate change and <a href="http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2006/1000448/index.html">other negative environmental impacts</a>. Livestock farming for meat production puts considerable pressure on global land and water use. At present, a large proportion of the protein produced for livestock feed comes from sources that are sometimes unsustainable and harmful to the environment. Eating insects To meet the considerable challenge of ensuring food security for the future, it is imperative to find alternative and sustainable sources of protein, both for direct human consumption and for animal feed. Insect-derived proteins are one possible solution. Insects, especially fly larvae, have many qualities that make them well adapted to animal feed. For example, insects are already a natural source of food for pigs and poultry as well as for many fish species. In addition, insect larvae are generally high in protein and are rich in other beneficial nutrients such as fats, minerals and vitamins. As a source of protein for direct human consumption, <a href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2015/06/150609124315.htm">insects offer several advantages</a> over traditional sources of meat. They have a significantly higher feed conversion rate than other livestock, which means they are more effective at converting the ingredients used to feed them into nutrients. In addition, insect production is more environmentally friendly than conventional livestock production. Insects release much lower amounts of greenhouse gases and ammonia into the atmosphere per kilogram of meat than cattle or pigs. Larvae that recycle Insect larvae, in particular, are efficient consumers of a wide range of organic materials. They have the ability to “over-cycle” relatively low quality organic residues as feedstock into valuable proteins and lipids. Although direct human consumption of insects is not widespread in Western countries, raising insects to transform organic waste streams offers an interesting opportunity to produce food ingredients for animal production. In particular, the larvae of the <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/9/3/98">black soldier fly</a> has a nutritional profile that makes them a potential ingredient to replace traditional food ingredients intended for human consumption. Multinational munching The cultivation of insects raised specifically for domestic animals and fish has been the subject of sporadic assessments for several decades. However, the widespread adoption and commercialization of these approaches remains difficult. The methods are still artisanal and have been mainly developed and deployed in emerging countries with limited resources. However, a convergence of factors has revived interest in this area, particularly from a number of multinationals in the agri-food sector. A combination of new municipal regulations limiting organic waste disposal and the need to find sustainable ingredients for animal feed have led to renewed interest in insects and their ability to transform organic waste into valuable food resources.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important; text-shadow: none !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/118675/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/grant-vandenberg-744406">Grant Vandenberg</a>, Professeur titulaire – Groupe de recherche en recyclage biologique et aquaculture, Faculté des sciences de l’agriculture et de l’alimentation, Université Laval, <a href="http://theconversation.com/institutions/universite-laval-1407">Université Laval</a> This article is republished from <a href="http://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/eating-insects-is-good-for-you-and-the-planet-118675">original article</a>.

Food & Wine

Are itchy insect bites worse for us?

New research suggests we could better understand mosquito-borne disease by looking closely at our itchy bites. Mosquitoes need blood. Unfortunately, they often get that blood from us; some of us are bitten more commonly than others. But mosquitoes aren’t flying syringes transporting droplets of infected blood from person to person. The mosquitoes need to be infected with a pathogen first before it can be passed on. And, more importantly, the mozzie’s spit must be infected. When a mosquito bites, she (only female mozzies bite) injects saliva to get the blood flowing. It’s a mixture of chemicals that helps the mosquito suck up blood from their unsuspecting victim. The reaction to mosquito bites can vary greatly. For many, a “mozzie bite” will be a mild annoyance that resolves itself without too much trouble. For others, the reaction can be more serious. It is particularly troublesome for young children who seem to react the worst. While there are no magic solutions to solve the itch, reactions generally get less severe as we develop a tolerance to bites. The spit may cause a reaction but it can also contain something more serious. Mosquito-borne pathogens, such as malaria, dengue and chikungunya, infect hundreds of millions of people every year. The emergence of Zika virus and its link to birth defects is yet another reminder of how potent these pathogens can be. Spit is the secret to infection Not everyone bitten by a mosquito carrying a virus will develop symptoms. New research suggests the worse our reactions to mosquito bites, the more likely it is we’ll get sick. The scientists allowed the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti, to bite laboratory mice and then injected the mice with Semliki Forest virus (an African mosquito-borne virus that generally causes mild symptoms in humans) via syringe. Other mice were only injected with the virus. What they found was that the immune cells that rushed to the bite site as part of an inflammatory response helped the virus replicate and spread. Mice without mosquito bites had substantially lower rates of infection. The implication is the reaction of the host to a mosquito bite may play a critical role in the virus' ability to infect the host. This isn’t surprising, and previous research has suggested an important role for mosquito saliva in virus transmission. These mosquito-borne viruses have evolved to exploit mosquitoes to get from host to host, why not adapt to the immune response of their hosts to further aid their survival? Reducing bite reactions and infection risks The latest research hints at a fascinating potential for mosquito-borne disease prevention. We already have a wide range of safe and effective mosquito repellents that can help prevent bites. We just need to encourage people to use them correctly. If you can stop mosquitoes biting, you can stop disease. Perhaps the use of anti-inflammatory creams or other medications may further reduce the chances of illness. It’s difficult to stop all bites and only takes one infected mosquito to slip through the cracks in our repellent coverage to cause infection. Could using these creams act as a safety net? If you can’t stop all the bites, at least minimising the inflammation may assist in reduce risk of disease. How do you repel mosquitos? Let us know in the comments below. Written by Cameron Webb. First appeared on <a href="http://Stuff.co.nz" target="_blank">Stuff.co.nz.</a> Related links: <a href="/health/body/2016/06/little-white-dots-under-skin/">Why we get little white dots under our skin</a> <a href="/news/news/2016/01/why-mosquitoes-are-more-attracted-to-some-people/">Why mosquitoes are more attracted to some people</a> <a href="/lifestyle/home-garden/2015/10/natural-mosquito-repellents/">Natural mosquito repellents</a>

Body

Ideas from the kitchen to keep insects out of your garden

If bugs and insects are attacking your vegetable patch, there’s no need to reach for the chemicals. In fact, head to your kitchen for many simple ways to get rid of slugs, snails, caterpillars and worms. <ul> <li>If you spot a plant that is being attacked, try sprinkling some crushed eggshells underneath it. You will find that this deters the crawling bugs such as snails and slugs.</li> <li>Herbs such as mint, citronella, basil and lemongrass can keep bugs at bay as they dislike the aroma. </li> <li>Place some orange rinds around the garden at night to attract slugs. You can then pick up the rinds and slugs the next day and toss them on your compost heap.</li> <li>Place some beer in a shallow container in your garden near plants that are being targeted (such as lettuce). Snails and slugs won’t be able to resist climbing in and won’t be able to get out.</li> <li>If worms are eating your home-grown veggies, try sprinkling some self-raising flour over the plants. While this is harmless to humans (just be sure to wash them before eating) it is going to keep the worms away from your produce.</li> <li>Sprinkle coffee grounds in areas where slugs and snails are living – they don’t like the smell or taste and will move along.</li> <li>Unlike slugs and snails that prefer to get busy in your garden at night, caterpillars can be easily be removed by hand when they are spotted in the daytime.</li> </ul>

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