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I’m feeling run down. Why am I more likely to get sick? And how can I boost my immune system?

<div class="theconversation-article-body"> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/sathana-dushyanthen-1169328">Sathana Dushyanthen</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> It has been a long winter, filled with many viruses and cost-of-living pressures, on top of the usual mix of work, study, life admin and caring responsibilities. Stress is an inevitable part of life. In short bursts, our stress response has evolved as a survival mechanism to help us be more alert in <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-you-cant-blame-all-your-health-issues-on-high-cortisol-heres-how-the-hormone-works-203162">fight or flight situations</a>. But when stress is chronic, it weakens the immune system and makes us more vulnerable to illnesses such as the <a href="https://www.healthline.com/health/can-stress-make-you-sick#:%7E:text=The%20common%20cold&text=Inflammation%20has%20been%20linked%20to,to%20the%20cold%2Dcausing%20germs.">common cold</a>, <a href="https://journals.lww.com/psychosomaticmedicine/abstract/1999/03000/psychological_stress,_cytokine_production,_and.9.aspx">flu</a> and <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/smi.3017">COVID</a>. <h2>Stress makes it harder to fight off viruses</h2> When the immune system starts to break down, a virus that would normally have been under control starts to flourish. Once you begin to feel sick, the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4465119/">stress response</a> rises, making it harder for the immune system to fight off the disease. You may be sick more often and for longer periods of time, without enough immune cells primed and ready to <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-16996-1_6">fight</a>. In the 1990s, American psychology professor Sheldon Cohen and his colleagues conducted a number of <a href="https://www.cmu.edu/common-cold-project/">studies</a> where healthy people were exposed to an upper respiratory infection, through drops of virus placed directly into their <a href="https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM199108293250903">nose</a>. These participants were then quarantined in a hotel and monitored closely to determine who became <a href="https://theconversation.com/stress-less-it-might-protect-you-from-covid-153361">ill</a>. One of the most important factors predicting who got sick was prolonged psychological <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1745691620942516">stress</a>. <h2>Cortisol suppresses immunity</h2> “Short-term stress” is stress that lasts for a period of minutes to hours, while “chronic stress” persists for several hours per day for <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5964013/#:%7E:text=Therefore%2C%20a%20major%20distinguishing%20characteristic,weeks%20or%20months%20%5B9%5D.">weeks or months</a>. When faced with a perceived threat, psychological or physical, the hypothalamus region of the brain sets off an alarm system. This signals the release of a surge of hormones, including adrenaline and <a href="https://www.embopress.org/doi/full/10.15252/msb.20209510">cortisol</a>. <figure class="align-center "><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/616892/original/file-20240903-18-blrqoz.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/616892/original/file-20240903-18-blrqoz.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/616892/original/file-20240903-18-blrqoz.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/616892/original/file-20240903-18-blrqoz.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=472&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/616892/original/file-20240903-18-blrqoz.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/616892/original/file-20240903-18-blrqoz.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/616892/original/file-20240903-18-blrqoz.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=593&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Human brain illustration" /><figcaption>The hypothalamus sets off an alarm system in response to a real or perceived threat. <a class="source" href="https://www.shutterstock.com/image-illustration/hypothalamus-causes-vasoconstriction-illustration-medical-brain-435142264">stefan3andrei/Shutterstock</a></figcaption></figure> In a typical stress response, <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S147149060300173X">cortisol levels</a> quickly increase when stress occurs, and then rapidly drop back to normal once the stress has subsided. In the short term, cortisol suppresses inflammation, to ensure the body has enough energy available to respond to an <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/immunology/articles/10.3389/fimmu.2019.00245/full">immediate threat</a>. But in the longer term, chronic stress can be harmful. A Harvard University study <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2796097">from 2022</a> showed that people suffering from psychological distress in the lead up to their COVID infection had a greater chance of experiencing long COVID. They <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2796097">classified</a> this distress as depression, probable anxiety, perceived stress, worry about COVID and loneliness. Those suffering distress had close to a <a href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapsychiatry/fullarticle/2796097">50% greater risk</a> of long COVID compared to other <a href="https://theconversation.com/being-stressed-out-before-you-get-covid-increases-your-chances-of-long-covid-heres-why-190649">participants</a>. Cortisol has been shown to be high in the most severe cases of <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7102614/">COVID</a>. <h2>Stress causes inflammation</h2> <a href="https://stories.uq.edu.au/imb/the-edge/inflammation/what-is-inflammation/index.html">Inflammation</a> is a short-term reaction to an injury or infection. It is responsible for trafficking immune cells in your body so the right cells are present in the right locations at the right times and at the right <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12026-014-8517-0">levels</a>. The immune cells also store a memory of that threat to respond faster and more effectively the next <a href="https://theconversation.com/being-stressed-out-before-you-get-covid-increases-your-chances-of-long-covid-heres-why-190649">time</a>. Initially, circulating immune cells detect and flock to the site of <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ni1275">infection</a>. Messenger proteins, known as pro-inflammatory cytokines, are released by immune cells, to signal the danger and recruit help, and our immune system responds to neutralise the <a href="https://stories.uq.edu.au/imb/the-edge/inflammation/what-is-inflammation/index.html">threat</a>. During this response to the infection, if the immune system produces too much of these inflammatory chemicals, it can trigger symptoms such as nasal congestion and runny <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1745691620942516">nose</a>. <h2>What about chronic stress?</h2> Chronic stress causes persistently high cortisol secretion, which remains high even in the absence of an immediate <a href="https://theconversation.com/no-you-cant-blame-all-your-health-issues-on-high-cortisol-heres-how-the-hormone-works-203162">stressor</a>. The immune system becomes desensitised and unresponsive to this <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1043661816307435">cortisol suppression</a>, increasing low-grade “silent” inflammation and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines (the messenger proteins). Immune cells become exhausted and start to <a href="https://www.fxmedicine.com.au/blog-post/adrenal-immune-connection">malfunction</a>. The body loses the ability to turn down the inflammatory <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1745691620942516">response</a>. Over time, the immune system changes the way it responds by reprogramming to a “<a href="https://www.unimelb.edu.au/newsroom/news/2021/april/how-stress-can-stop-immune-cells-in-their-tracks">low surveillance mode</a>”. The immune system misses early opportunities to destroy threats, and the process of recovery can take <a href="https://theconversation.com/being-stressed-out-before-you-get-covid-increases-your-chances-of-long-covid-heres-why-190649">longer</a>. <h2>So how can you manage your stress?</h2> We can actively strengthen our immunity and natural defences by managing our <a href="https://theconversation.com/stuck-in-fight-or-flight-mode-5-ways-to-complete-the-stress-cycle-and-avoid-burnout-or-depression-218599">stress levels</a>. Rather than letting stress build up, try to address it early and frequently by: 1) Getting enough sleep Getting enough sleep reduces <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3132857/">cortisol levels</a> and inflammation. During sleep, the immune system <a href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4939-6578-6_12">releases</a> <a href="https://theconversation.com/sleep-wont-cure-the-coronavirus-but-it-can-help-our-bodies-fight-it-134674">cytokines</a>, which help fight infections and inflammation. 2) Taking regular exercise Exercising helps the lymphatic system (which balances bodily fluids as part of the immune system) circulate and allows immune cells to monitor for threats, while sweating flushes <a href="https://www.healthline.com/nutrition/does-exercise-boost-immune-system">toxins</a>. Physical activity also lowers stress hormone levels through the release of positive brain <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7387807/">signals</a>. 3) Eating a healthy diet Ensuring your diet contains enough nutrients – such as the B vitamins, and the full breadth of minerals like magnesium, iron and zinc – during times of stress has a positive impact on overall stress <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22782571">levels</a>. Staying hydrated helps the body to flush out <a href="https://theconversation.com/a-strong-immune-system-helps-ward-off-colds-and-flus-but-its-not-the-only-factor-99512">toxins</a>. 4) Socialising and practising meditation or mindfulness These activities increase endorphins and serotonin, which improve mood and have <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2949834123000351">anti-inflammatory effects</a>. Breathing exercises and meditation stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system, which calms down our stress responses so we can “reset” and reduce <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4940234/">cortisol levels</a>.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/237456/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/sathana-dushyanthen-1169328">Sathana Dushyanthen</a>, Academic Specialist & Lecturer in Cancer Sciences & Digital Health| Superstar of STEM| Science Communicator, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-melbourne-722">The University of Melbourne</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/im-feeling-run-down-why-am-i-more-likely-to-get-sick-and-how-can-i-boost-my-immune-system-237456">original article</a>. </div>

Body

Antarctic heat, wild Australian winter: what’s happening to the weather and what it means for the rest of the year

<div class="theconversation-article-body"><a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/martin-jucker-379172">Martin Jucker</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/unsw-sydney-1414">UNSW Sydney</a> Australia’s south and east have seen <a href="https://theconversation.com/southern-australia-is-freezing-how-can-it-be-so-cold-in-a-warming-climate-233977">freezing temperatures</a> and <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/article/2024/jul/29/australia-winter-weather-forecast-east-coast-colder-records">wild weather</a> this winter. At the same time, the continent as a whole – and the globe – have <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-08-03/australia-suffers-cold-winter-weather-despite-mild-forecast/104176284">continued to warm</a>. What’s going on? As ever, it’s hard to pinpoint a single cause for weather events. But a key player is likely an event unfolding high above Antarctica, which itself may have been triggered by a heatwave at surface level on the frozen continent. Here’s what’s happening – and what it might mean for the rest of this year’s weather. <h2>When the stratosphere heats up</h2> Out story begins in the cold air over Antarctica. July temperatures in the stratosphere, the layer of air stretching between altitudes of around 10 and 50 kilometres, are typically around –80°C. The winds are also very strong, averaging about 300 kilometres per hour in winter. These cold, fast winds loop around above the pole in what is called the <a href="https://sites.krieger.jhu.edu/waugh/research/polarvortex">stratospheric polar vortex</a>. Occasionally, persistent high air pressure in the lower atmosphere can influence large-scale waves that extend around the globe and up into the stratosphere. There they cause the strong winds to slow down, and the air high above the pole to become much warmer than normal. In extreme situations the stratospheric winds can completely break down, in what is called a “sudden stratospheric warming” event. These events occur every few years in the northern hemisphere, but only one has ever been observed in the south, in 2002 (though another <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-air-above-antarctica-is-suddenly-getting-warmer-heres-what-it-means-for-australia-123080">almost happened in 2019</a>). <h2>Pushing polar weather our way</h2> Once the polar vortex is disturbed, it can in turn influence the weather at the surface by steering weather systems from the Southern Ocean towards the Equator. However, this is a slow process. The impact at the surface may not be felt until <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-22-0425.1">a few weeks or even months</a> after the initial weakening of the stratospheric polar vortex. Once it begins, the stratospheric influence can prevail for more weeks or months, and helps meteorologists make <a href="https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-22-2601-2022">long-range weather forecasts</a>. In climate science terms, the weak stratospheric winds put an atmospheric system called the <a href="http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/sam/">Southern Annular Mode</a> into a negative phase. The main effect of this on surface weather is to bring westerly winds further north. In winter, this means polar air outbreaks can reach places like Sydney more easily. As a result, we see more <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI4134.1">rain over much of southern Australia</a>, and snowfall in alpine regions. In spring and summer it means westerly winds blow over the continent before reaching the east coast, bringing warm and dry air to southeastern Australia. The exact impact of a weaker polar vortex depends on how much and for how long the weather systems are being pushed further northward. It will also depend on other weather influencers such as El Niño and the Indian Ocean Dipole. <h1>This winter’s weirdness</h1> Unpicking exactly why any weather event occurs is tricky at the moment, because global weather has been absolutely crazy over the past 12 months or so. Global temperatures are <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-just-blew-past-1-5-degrees-game-over-on-climate-not-yet-213364">much higher than usual</a>, which is making unusual weather very common. But there are indications that the stratosphere is having some influence on our weather this winter. The stratospheric polar vortex started to warm in mid-July, and is about 20°C warmer than the long-term average. At the time of writing, the winds slowed down to about 230 kilometres per hour, 70 kilometres per hour slower than average. These numbers mean that, technically, the event does not qualify as a sudden stratospheric warming. However, further warming may still occur. If we look at how southern hemisphere winds have evolved in the past few weeks, we see a pattern which looks like what we would expect from a sudden stratospheric warming. First, we see warming in the stratosphere which is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL095270">at first accompanied by a poleward shift of weather systems</a>. The stratosphere’s influence then propagates downward and seems to <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-22-0425.1">induce many weeks</a> of weather systems shifted towards the equator. This coincides with the period of cold and rainy weather along Australia’s east coast in late July and the beginning of August. Forecasts suggest the Southern Annular Mode will be a long way from normal conditions in the first half of August – four standard deviations below average, which is extremely rare. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/611211/original/file-20240804-19-sp862a.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/611211/original/file-20240804-19-sp862a.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/611211/original/file-20240804-19-sp862a.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/611211/original/file-20240804-19-sp862a.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/611211/original/file-20240804-19-sp862a.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=300&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/611211/original/file-20240804-19-sp862a.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/611211/original/file-20240804-19-sp862a.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/611211/original/file-20240804-19-sp862a.png?ixlib=rb-4.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=377&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="Diagram showing atmospheric warming and winds" /></a><figcaption>How initial warming high in the stratosphere ends up changing winds near the surface and pushing polar weather further north. <a class="source" href="https://stratobserve.com">Z.D. Lawrence / StratObserve / Annotated by Martin Jucker</a></figcaption></figure> <h1>A surface disturbance</h1> The main reason for the polar vortex to slow down is disturbances from the surface. Weather over the Amundsen Sea near Antarctica in the South Pacific is <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-22-0425.1">an important source</a> of these disturbances. This year, we have seen disturbances of this sort. There have been <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/aug/01/antarctic-temperatures-rise-10c-above-average-in-near-record-heatwave">near-record surface temperatures around Antarctica</a>. These disturbances may be due to the globally high ocean temperatures, or even lingering effects of the <a href="https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-23-0437.1">eruption of the Hunga Tonga volcano in 2022</a>. But more research will be required to confirm the causes. <h1>What should we expect for the rest of the year?</h1> There are two pathways until the end of the year. One is that the stratospheric winds and temperatures recover to their usual values and no longer influence surface weather. This is what the forecasts from <a href="https://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov">Ozone Watch</a> seem to suggest. Another is that the stratosphere keeps warming and the winds keep being slower all the way into summer. In this scenario, we would expect a persistent negative Southern Annular Mode, which would mean a spring and potentially even summer with warmer and drier than usual weather over southeastern Australia, and a small ozone hole. The seasonal forecasting models from the European Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasts <a href="https://x.com/drahbutler/status/1819142206348759170?s=46&t=sayfGwpo3_s310BwYpcdcQ">seem to favour this second scenario</a>. <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/martin-jucker-379172">Martin Jucker</a>, Senior Lecturer in Atmospheric Science, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/unsw-sydney-1414">UNSW Sydney</a> Image credits: Shutterstock This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/antarctic-heat-wild-australian-winter-whats-happening-to-the-weather-and-what-it-means-for-the-rest-of-the-year-236067">original article</a>. </div>

Travel Trouble

Dog care below freezing − how to keep your pet warm and safe from cold weather, road salt and more this winter

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/erik-christian-olstad-1505284">Erik Christian Olstad</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-california-davis-1312">University of California, Davis</a> Time outside with your dog in the spring, summer and fall can be lovely. Visiting your favorite downtown café on a cool spring morning, going to a favorite dog park on a clear summer evening or going on walks along a river when the leaves are changing color are all wonderful when the weather is favorable. But in much of the country, when winter rolls around, previously hospitable conditions can <a href="https://theconversation.com/is-winter-miserable-for-wildlife-108734">quickly turn chilly and dangerous</a> for people and pups alike. Winter brings some unique challenges for dog owners, since dogs still need activity and socialization during colder seasons. Studies have shown that dog owners are almost 50% less likely to walk their dogs <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ani11113302">when the weather gets cold</a>. Knowing the basics of winter safety is critical to maintaining a healthy lifestyle for your dog. I am an <a href="https://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/faculty/erik-olstad">assistant professor</a> at the University of California Davis School of Veterinary Medicine who weathered polar vortexes with my dog while living in Michigan early in my career. While I’ve since moved to sunny California, I’ve seen how quickly frigid temperatures can turn dangerous for pets. <h2>Breed and age differences</h2> Not all dogs have the same abilities to deal with cold weather. A short-coated dog like a Chihuahua is much more susceptible to the dangers of cold weather than a thick-coated husky. When the weather dips below 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4 degrees Celsius), the well-acclimated husky may be comfortable, whereas the Chihuahua would shiver and be at risk of hypothermia. Additionally, if your dog is used to warm weather, but you decide to move to a colder region, the dog will need time to acclimate to that colder weather, even if they have a thick coat. Age also affects cold-weather resilience. Puppies and elderly dogs can’t withstand the chill as well as other dogs, but every dog is unique – each may have individual health conditions or physical attributes that make them more or less resilient to cold weather. <h2>When is my dog too cold?</h2> Pet owners should be able to recognize the symptoms of a dog that is getting too cold. Dogs will shiver, and some may vocalize or whine. Dogs may resist putting their feet down on the cold ground, or burrow, or try to find warmth in their environment when they are uncomfortable. Just like people, <a href="https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/frostbite-in-dogs">dogs can get frostbite</a>. And just like people, the signs can take days to appear, making it hard to assess them in the moment. The most common sites for frostbite in dogs are their ears and the tips of their tails. Some of the initial signs of frostbite are skin discoloring, turning paler than normal, or purple, gray or even black; red, blistered skin; swelling; pain at the site; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/ulcer">or ulceration</a>. Other <a href="https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/frostbite-in-dogs">serious signs of hypothermia</a> include sluggishness or lethargy, and if you observe them, please visit your veterinarian immediately. A good rule to live by is if it is too cold for you, it is too cold for your dog. Getting your dog a <a href="https://www.cnn.com/cnn-underscored/pets/best-winter-dog-coats-jackets">sweater or jacket</a> and <a href="https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/vets-corner/protect-dogs-paws-snow-ice-salt/">paw covers</a> can provide them with protection from the elements and keep them comfortable. Veterinarians also recommend closely monitoring your dog and limiting their time outside when the temperature nears the freezing point or drops below it. <h2>Road salt dangers</h2> Road salt that treats ice on streets and sidewalks <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/ice-salt-toxic-for-pets-1.5020088">can also harm dogs</a>. When dogs walk on the salt, the sharp, rough edges of the salt crystals can irritate the sensitive skin on their paws. Dogs will often lick their feet when they’re dirty, wet or irritated, and if they ingest any salt doing that, they may face GI upset, dehydration, kidney failure, seizures or even death. Even small amounts of pure salt can <a href="https://www.petpoisonhelpline.com/pet-tips/my-dog-ate-road-salt-will-they-be-okay/">disrupt critical body functions</a> in dogs. Some companies make pet-safe salt, but in public it can be hard to tell what type of salt is on the ground. After walking your dog, wash off their feet or boots. You can also keep their paw fur trimmed to prevent snow from balling up or salt collecting in the fur. Applying a thin layer of petroleum jelly or <a href="https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/how-to-make-your-own-paw-balm-for-winter/">paw pad balm</a> to the skin of the paw pads can also help protect your pet’s paws from irritation. <h2>Antifreeze risks</h2> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/antifreeze-chemical-substance">Antifreeze, or ethylene glycol</a>, is in most vehicles to prevent the fluids from freezing when it gets cold out. Some people pour antifreeze into their toilets when away from their home to prevent the water in the toilet from freezing. Antifreeze is an exceptionally dangerous chemical to dogs and cats, as it tastes sweet but can be deadly when ingested. If a pet ingests even a small amount of antifreeze, the substance causes a chemical cascade in their body that results in severe kidney damage. If left untreated, the pet may have <a href="https://www.petpoisonhelpline.com/pet-owner-blog/antifreeze-poisoning/">permanent kidney damage or die</a>. There are safer antifreeze options on the market that use ingredients other than ethylene glycol. If your dog ingests antifreeze, please see your veterinarian immediately for treatment. When temperatures dip below freezing, the best thing pet owners can do is keep the time spent outside as minimal as possible. Try some <a href="https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/great-indoor-games-to-play-with-your-dog/">indoor activities</a>, like hide-and-seek with low-calorie treats, fetch or even an interactive obstacle course. Food puzzles can also keep your dog mentally engaged during indoor time. Although winter presents some unique challenges, it can still be an enjoyable and healthy time for you and your canine companion.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/221709/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/erik-christian-olstad-1505284">Erik Christian Olstad</a>, Health Sciences Assistant Professor of Clinical Veterinary Medicine, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-california-davis-1312">University of California, Davis</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/dog-care-below-freezing-how-to-keep-your-pet-warm-and-safe-from-cold-weather-road-salt-and-more-this-winter-221709">original article</a>.

Family & Pets

It’s warming up and mozzies are coming. Here’s how to mosquito-proof your backyard

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/cameron-webb-6736">Cameron Webb</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-sydney-841">University of Sydney</a> The weather is warming up and that means more time in the backyard. It also means more mosquitoes. Here are five ways you can mosquito-proof your backyard that <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-battle-against-bugs-its-time-to-end-chemical-warfare-111629">don’t rely on spraying insecticides</a>. <h2>1. Get rid of water</h2> Mosquitoes need water to complete their life cycles. They <a href="https://theconversation.com/feel-like-youre-a-mozzie-magnet-its-true-mosquitoes-prefer-to-bite-some-people-over-others-128788">need blood</a> – but water and warmth are just as important. Getting rid of water around your backyard will go a long way to keeping mosquitoes away. Water trapped in blocked roof gutters, drains and tarpaulin covering boats and trailers can be a great home for mosquitoes. Mosquitoes can exploit the tiniest of water sources too. It may just be the upturned lid of a discarded plastic drink bottle. If it traps water, mosquitoes will find it and lay eggs in it. Flush out your bird bath once a week to disrupt the mosquito’s life cycle. If you have a pond, installing a fountain will discourage mosquitoes. If you can’t keep water clean and circulating, consider filling it with sand and gravel to create an interesting garden bed for succulents or other plants. Mosquitoes will avoid clean and chlorinated swimming pools but will quickly move into “green pools”. If you’re not using your pool, consider <a href="https://www.krg.nsw.gov.au/Environment/Your-local-environment/Wildlife/Living-with-wildlife/Pool-to-pond/How-to-convert-your-pool">converting it to a “pond”</a> so that fish can help keep mosquito numbers down. <h2>2. Screen up – windows, doors and rainwater tanks</h2> If you can’t get rid of permanent water, at least stop mosquitoes getting to it (or you). Ensure <a href="https://www.brisbane.qld.gov.au/clean-and-green/natural-environment-and-water/water/water-smart-homes/rainwater-tanks/using-your-rainwater-tank">rainwater and septic tanks</a> have screens to stop mosquitoes entering. Screen windows and doors to stop mosquitoes entering the home. There are plenty of flexible screening options for windows, doors and balconies. If you live in a mosquito-prone area, creating a screened outdoor area (such as a pergola, courtyard, or balcony) will give you the opportunity to spend time outdoors without being hassled by mozzies. <h2>3. Choose your garden plants carefully</h2> Some plants <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/Journal-of-the-American-Mosquito-Control-Association/volume-25/issue-3/09-0016.1/Are-Commercially-Available-Essential-Oils-from-Australian-Native-Plants-Repellent/10.2987/09-0016.1.short">contain essential oils and other chemicals</a> that, when extracted and concentrated, provide protection against biting mosquitoes. But there isn’t a lot of evidence that the whole plant will keep mosquitoes away from your garden. Some types of plants are even marketed as “mozzie blockers” or “mosquito repelling”. But there isn’t <a href="https://www.veranda.com/outdoor-garden/a40592197/do-mosquito-repelling-plants-work/">any evidence of effectiveness</a>. In fact, some of these plants, <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1440-6055.2009.00736.x">such as melaleucas</a>, also happen to be associated with <a href="https://academic.oup.com/jme/article/36/4/515/903838">hot spots of mosquito breeding</a> in coastal Australia. The plants to avoid around the home are those that help mosquitoes breed, such as <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1440-6055.2008.00641.x">bromeliads</a>, which trap water. <h2>4. Encourage the animals that eat mosquitoes</h2> Mosquitoes are food for a range of animals including birds, bats, fish, frogs, lizards, insects, spiders and <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/1365-2656.13965">dragonflies</a>. But don’t expect them to eat enough to keep all mosquitoes away. Bats are often promoted as a good “biological control” options but studies have shown mosquitoes are <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0077183">more likely to be a snack food</a> for small bats, not an irresistible staple of their diet. For garden ponds, frogs will eat a few adult mosquitoes but tadpoles of Australian frogs generally <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-the-american-mosquito-control-association/volume-21/issue-4/8756-971X(2006)21%5b492%3aTOFCAF%5d2.0.CO%3b2/TADPOLES-OF-FOUR-COMMON-AUSTRALIAN-FROGS-ARE-NOT-EFFECTIVE-PREDATORS/10.2987/8756-971X(2006)21%5B492:TOFCAF%5D2.0.CO;2.short">don’t eat many mosquito “wrigglers”</a>. Australian native fish <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15532929/">will readily eat mosquitoes</a> and may be useful for backyard ponds. But not all fish are good. While “mosquitofish” (aka “plague minnow”) is distributed overseas to assist in mosquito control, <a href="https://meridian.allenpress.com/australian-zoologist/article/30/3/316/134508/Does-predation-by-the-fish-Gambusia-holbrooki">it’s a disaster for local wildlife</a> and, <a href="https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fishing/aquatic-biosecurity/pests-diseases/freshwater-pests/finfish-species/gambusia">along with other exotic fish species</a>, should not be released into local waterways. <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13157-019-01133-2">Healthier habitats promote fewer mosquitoes</a> so the best thing you can do is create habitats for the animals that eat mosquitoes. <h2>5. Avoid traps and other gadgets</h2> There are lots of devices purported to catch, kill, or repel mosquitoes from your garden. Some may catch a mosquito or two but they’re not very effective in knocking out big numbers. “Bug zappers” with bright lights will collect lots of flying insects. It’s just that mosquitoes make up a very small proportion of collections. Electrocuting devices, again, don’t seem to attract a lot of mosquitoes. Devices that <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-buzz-from-your-smartphone-wont-stop-mosquito-bites-92611">emit high frequency sounds</a> won’t help either. The best devices are typically those that are baited with carbon dioxide. These are a mainstay of state and territory <a href="https://www.health.nsw.gov.au/Infectious/mosquito-borne/Pages/surveillance.aspx">mosquito and arbovirus surveillance programs</a>. For a mosquito, the C0₂ tricks them into thinking the trap is a warm-blooded animal. The only problem is these can be expensive to run and don’t seem quite as effective for mosquito control <a href="https://bioone.org/journals/journal-of-the-american-mosquito-control-association/volume-22/issue-3/8756-971X(2006)22%5b490%3aTATTFA%5d2.0.CO%3b2/Traps-and-Trapping-Techniques-for-Adult-Mosquito-Control/10.2987/8756-971X(2006)22%5B490:TATTFA%5D2.0.CO;2.short">unless used in large numbers</a>. <h2>Yes, you’ll still need repellent</h2> Perhaps the best way to avoid mosquito bites is to pick an insect repellent <a href="https://www.phrp.com.au/issues/december-2016-volume-26-issue-5/a-review-of-recommendations-on-the-safe-and-effective-use-of-topical-mosquito-repellents/">recommended by health authorities</a> and <a href="https://theconversation.com/mozzies-biting-heres-how-to-choose-a-repellent-and-how-to-use-it-for-the-best-protection-150183">apply it</a> to ensure all exposed areas of skin are covered. These products and safe, affordable and effective.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/212711/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/cameron-webb-6736">Cameron Webb</a>, Clinical Associate Professor and Principal Hospital Scientist, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-sydney-841">University of Sydney</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/its-warming-up-and-mozzies-are-coming-heres-how-to-mosquito-proof-your-backyard-212711">original article</a>.

Home & Garden

10 driving tips to stay safe in wet weather

Driving in the rain? Follow these tips for safe driving in wet weather This should go without saying, but reducing your speed – as long as you continue to keep with the flow of traffic, of course – is imperative when driving in the rain. After all, between the downpour and spray from other vehicles, heavy rain reduces visibility in all directions, and you need more time to react. Keep your distance Driving in the rain can be hazardous, and if ever there is an incident that requires you – or the driver in front you – to brake unexpectedly, you’ll want to have ample stopping distance on wet roads. Avoid heavy breaking While driving in the rain, you may find yourself in situations – whether you’re hydroplaning or finding yourself in a skid – that will tempt you to hit the brakes abruptly. Do your best to curb that impulse. Brakes can be affected greatly by water, losing a bit of their power when wet, which can be disastrous in an emergency. Easing off the brakes, slowing down and maintaining control of your vehicle is your best bet. Keep both hands on the wheel Control is of utmost importance when driving in the rain. After all, you need to be in command of your vehicle should an incident occur, and having both hands on the wheel while driving in the rain (no snacking or fiddling with the radio!) will ensure you can get out of a sticky situation quickly and efficiently. Keep windows from fogging up When driving in rain, windows tend to fog up as a result of the difference in temperatures inside and outside the car and can lead to decreased visibility. To stay safe and avoid accidents, simply press your car’s defrost button to clear-up the window. Turn on your A/C or roll down the windows by a couple of centimetres to remove the humidity from the vehicle and lower the temperature inside the car. If the issue persists, you may want to purchase a windshield cleaner and defogger. Beware of hydroplaning Hydroplaning happens when your car travels above the water without touching the ground. Given that a driver is left with little-to-no grip with the road and, thus, less control, this can be a dangerous set of circumstances. If you find yourself in such a situation, stay calm, ease off the brakes and do not turn your steering wheel; let your car slow down and the tires reattach to the road surface. Avoid puddles Windshield wipers should always be in working condition. Be vigilant about replacing them once per year, or whenever they start to leave streaks on the glass. Having wipers blades in tip-top shape ensures the best possible visibility when driving in the rain. Stay home if you can If you have no choice but to head outside during a heavy downpour, be sure to follow these driving tips. However, if you don’t have anywhere pressing to be, consider staying home and waiting it out until the storm subsides. Keep your headlights on With wet weather often comes fog and overall gloominess. With your surroundings slightly darkened, turning on your headlights ensures that you can see the road in front of you, and that other drivers can see you. Ensure windshield wipers are in working order Windshield wipers should always be in working condition. Be vigilant about replacing them once per year, or whenever they start to leave streaks on the glass. Having wipers blades in tip-top shape ensures the best possible visibility when driving in the rain. Image credits: Getty Images This article originally appeared on <a href="https://www.readersdigest.co.nz/food-home-garden/home-tips/10-driving-tips-to-stay-safe-in-wet-weather" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Reader's Digest</a>.

Travel Tips

How climate change will affect your pet – and how to help them cope

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/edward-narayan-414899">Edward Narayan</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-queensland-805">The University of Queensland</a> Earth has just experienced its <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/jul/27/scientists-july-world-hottest-month-record-climate-temperatures">hottest month</a> since records began and Australia is now gearing up for an El Niño-fuelled summer. Extreme heat isn’t just challenging for humans – it brings suffering to our beloved pets, too. <a href="https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/cabireviews.2023.0020">Research</a> I was involved in examined how climate change affects the welfare of animals, including pets. My colleagues and I used a concept for assessing animal welfare known as the “<a href="https://kb.rspca.org.au/knowledge-base/what-are-the-five-domains-and-how-do-they-differ-from-the-five-freedoms/">five-domains model</a>”. It’s a science-based structure for examining an animal’s: <ul> <li>nutrition</li> <li>environment</li> <li>physical health</li> <li>behaviour</li> <li>mental state.</li> </ul> The model evaluates the complete physiological and behavioural responses of animals to environmental stressors. While the effects of climate change on animals have been studied before, ours is the first study to apply the model to animal welfare specifically. We examined the academic literature and found climate change will harm animals across all five welfare domains. This applies to both wild and domesticated animals, including pets. So let’s take a look at how various types of pets will fare in a warming world – and how we can help them. <h2>Fish</h2> Fish are “ectotherms” – that is, they use external sources of heat to regulate their body temperature. So pet fish are vulnerable to changes in the water temperature of your home aquarium, which may occur during a heatwave. Extreme water temperatures can cause physical harm to fish. For example, it can increase a fish’s metabolic rate – meaning it <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/feeling-the-heat-warming-oceans-drive-fish-into-cooler-waters">needs more oxygen</a> to breathe . It can also <a href="https://www.nepjol.info/index.php/ON/article/view/4331">cause changes</a> such as slowed growth and reduced feeding. According to <a href="https://agriculture.vic.gov.au/livestock-and-animals/animal-welfare-victoria/other-pets/caring-for-your-pet-fish">official advice</a>, water in an indoor aquarium should generally be kept at between 20℃ and 25℃ (unless you are keeping tropical fish). Depending on your budget and aquarium size, you could opt to use a device to control the water temperature. Either way, it’s important to monitor the water temperature regularly. Also make sure the aquarium isn’t located near a window where it’s exposed to direct sunlight. Leaving your aquarium unattended for days or weeks in summer can be dangerous, due to the risk of heatwaves. If you’re going on a summer holiday, consider organising a <a href="https://www.thesprucepets.com/holiday-and-vacation-fish-care-and-feeding-1378525#:%7E:text=If%20you%20are%20going%20on,aquarium%20and%20can%20prove%20lethal">fish sitter</a> to check on the animal regularly. <h2>Birds</h2> Heat stress can change the <a href="https://www.vetexotic.theclinics.com/article/S1094-9194(16)00003-7/fulltext">physiology</a> of birds. For example, research into a wild population of small Australian robins showed during a heatwave, the birds <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jav.02355">lost body mass</a> and abandoned their nests, and some died. Heat stress can also cause <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15327604jaws0101_5">abnormal behaviour in pet birds</a> such as <a href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1828051X.2016.1195711?src=recsys">feather picking</a>, when one bird repeatedly pecks at the feathers of another. In hot weather, regularly check your bird’s cage to make sure it’s clean and stocked with food and water. If the bird is in an outdoor cage or aviary, ensure it is shaded. And a shallow bird bath will help your feathered friend cool off. <h2>Dogs</h2> Dogs and cats can suffer on hot days. That’s especially true if they are: <ul> <li><a href="https://www.ejmanager.com/mnstemps/100/100-1626960667.pdf?t=1657722662">older or overweight</a></li> <li>have thick coats</li> <li>have short snouts/flat faces (which restricts air flow and makes it harder for them to cool down).</li> </ul> Heat stress can cause <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2021.742926/full?&utm_source=Email_to_ae_&utm_medium=Email&utm_content=T1_11.5e2_editor&utm_campaign=Email_publication&journalName=Frontiers_in_Veterinary_Science&id=742926">canine hyperthermia</a>, which means the dog’s body temperature becomes dangerously hot. Watch for <a href="https://www.rvc.ac.uk/small-animal-vet/teaching-and-research/fact-files/heatstroke-in-dogs-and-cats#:%7E:text=Early%20signs%20of%20heatstroke%20in%20pet%20animals&text=Panting%2C%20this%20can%20progress%20to,Red%20gums%20or%20tongue">early warning signs</a> of heat stress such as excessive panting and erratic movements. These symptoms can quickly escalate, leading to heat stroke and possible death. <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34828033/">More than 80%</a> of dog owners report exercising their dogs less vigorously, or for shorter periods, during hot weather. That can help avoid heat-related illness. But don’t reduce your dog’s activity levels too much, as that may lead to other health problems. Just time the walks to avoid the heat of the day. Refrain from leaving dogs unattended in vehicles, because they can easily overheat. In fact, it’s better to leave your dog inside home on a hot day, as long as they have a cool place to rest and plenty of water – perhaps even with ice cubes in it. And dogs love to cool off in a kiddie pool or under a sprinkler. If you take your dog out on a hot day, <a href="https://agriculture.vic.gov.au/livestock-and-animals/animal-welfare-victoria/dogs/health/heat-and-pets#:%7E:text=Be%20aware%20of%20the%20signs,not%20icy%20water%20and%20fanned">carry</a> a container of fresh, cool water for them. And don’t forget to slip-slop-slap: apply a sparing amount of pet sunscreen to your dogs’ exposed pink skin such as ear tips and nose. <h2>Cats</h2> Like other animals, cats can overheat in hot weather. Symptoms include panting heavily, drooling and a rapid pulse. Like with other animals, if you suspect your cat is suffering from heatstroke, call a vet immediately. Climate change and associated heat and floods is likely to aid the spread of parasites and illness <a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/jeffmcmahon/2022/12/31/guess-whos-loving-climate-change-mosquitos-and-the-pathogens-they-carry/?sh=50654683174a">including</a> tick-borne diseases, <a href="https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70213352">flea</a> infestations and <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32145530/">heartworm</a>. This puts both cats and dogs at risk. In hot weather, the advice for cat owners is similar to that of dog owners: ensure your cat has plenty of shade and water, and put pet sunscreen on their ear tips and noses, especially if the cat is white. If possible, keep the cat inside during the hottest part of the day. Ensure at least one room is cool and ventilated. And in a heatwave, play with your cat either in the early morning or evening, when the temperature has cooled. <h2>A helping human hand</h2> While humans have the capacity to understand and prepare for climate change, pets will need our help to cope. This includes not just the pets listed above, but others too, including reptiles, guinea pigs and rabbits. As heatwaves and other extreme weather events become more common, the onus is on us to keep our pets safe.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210724/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/edward-narayan-414899">Edward Narayan</a>, Senior Lecturer in Animal Science, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/the-university-of-queensland-805">The University of Queensland</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-climate-change-will-affect-your-pet-and-how-to-help-them-cope-210724">original article</a>.

Family & Pets

Extreme weather events are exactly the time to talk about climate change – here’s why

<a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/josh-ettinger-1302389">Josh Ettinger</a>, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-oxford-1260">University of Oxford</a> Record-breaking heatwaves are <a href="https://public.wmo.int/en/media/news/simultaneous-heatwaves-hit-northern-hemisphere-summer-of-extremes">sweeping across the northern hemisphere</a>, affecting large parts of southern Europe, the US and China. On July 24, Sicily recorded blistering temperatures <a href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-66302472">of more than 47.5℃</a> and wildfires are currently <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/jul/25/how-bad-are-wildfires-in-greece-what-caused-them-visual-guide-heatwave">tearing through Greece</a>. The heatwaves come as <a href="https://www.reuters.com/graphics/CANADA-WILDFIRE/HISTORIC/znvnzebmavl/">record numbers of fires continue to burn</a> across Canada. A <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-66289489">study by the World Weather Attribution group</a> found that these heatwaves would have been “virtually impossible” without climate change. In fact, the heatwave that is affecting parts of China was made 50 times more likely by global warming. This is exactly what climate scientists have been warning us about for decades – climate change makes many types of extreme weather event <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-what-the-new-ipcc-report-says-about-extreme-weather-and-climate-change/">more likely, more intense and longer lasting</a>. As a PhD researcher examining extreme weather events and climate change communication, I have spent the past four years exploring how extreme weather events may affect the way the public feels, thinks and acts on climate change. One area of interest to researchers is how extreme weather events might reduce the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0272494422000676">“psychological distance”</a> associated with climate change. While climate change can feel abstract and vague, extreme weather is something people can experience firsthand. But <a href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab466a/meta">research offers contrasting results</a>. Some studies have found that extreme weather events lead to an <a href="https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1017/S0022381612000448?casa_token=dTns6Kvds1AAAAAA%3AkQcleVJ95vJUyh5Pg2vxvFEDbzfR1RsuOI131QCMO0wvdtIiLSVEq4EW6fZYwC7Yhraxj-NB9g">increased belief</a> that human-driven climate change is occurring and <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-016-1837-4">greater support for climate action</a>. Others <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10584-021-03176-z">find no effects</a> or suggest that these effects are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0959378017309135?via%3Dihub">only temporary</a>. However, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-32412-y">we often underestimate</a> how much the public already cares about climate change. In Britain, <a href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1164127/desnz-pat-spring-2023-net-zero-and-climate-change.pdf">just 4% of the public</a> say they are not at all concerned about climate change, while only <a href="https://climatecommunication.yale.edu/about/projects/global-warmings-six-americas/">11% of Americans</a> dismiss the issue. Given that <a href="https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/04/18/a-look-at-how-people-around-the-world-view-climate-change/">most people</a> are already concerned about climate change, an important question now is how to shift these existing concerns into action. <a href="https://theconversation.com/how-to-talk-to-your-family-and-friends-about-the-new-ipcc-report-five-tips-from-climate-change-communication-research-202306">Talking about climate change</a> is a powerful way of mobilising climate action, and extreme weather events provide helpful climate conversation starters. We can use these moments as opportunities to <a href="https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/20563051231177930">engage our families, friends and communities</a> in discussions about how climate change may relate to these events and <a href="https://drawdown.org/solutions">what we can do about it</a>. So, if you decide to engage people you know in discussions about extreme weather and climate change, here are a few thoughts and guidelines to keep in mind. <h2>1. Listen and share perspectives</h2> <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0887618520300773">Extreme weather events can be traumatic</a> and climate change can evoke a wide range of emotional responses. If the person you are talking to is comfortable discussing the topic, ask them about their experiences and observations. Encourage them to tell stories and affirm the validity of their emotional response – whether they are afraid, angry, hopeful or worried. There is no one right way to feel about climate change, so listen to what they have to say and then share your own perspective too. <h2>2. Talk about planning and preparation</h2> When discussing extreme weather events, some people may link their experiences to climate change, while others focus on various local factors that contribute to extreme weather risks. The risks associated with extreme weather arise from a <a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/chapter/summary-for-policymakers/">combination</a> of factors. These include the weather itself, which can be influenced by climate change, the level of exposure of people and places to extreme weather and the vulnerability of those to harm. Climate change, for instance, can affect the frequency, intensity and duration of wildfires. But emergency responses, evacuation procedures, firefighting and healthcare systems are crucially important to reduce risks. There are also significant equity and justice implications of extreme weather as different populations are <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41885-020-00060-5">affected disproportionally</a>. It’s also important to bear in mind that while climate change affects many extreme weather events, it <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/climate-change-not-the-main-driver-of-madagascar-food-crisis-scientists-find/">does not necessarily affect every instance</a>. Weather systems are complex and there are <a href="https://theconversation.com/heres-why-climate-change-isnt-always-to-blame-for-extreme-rainfall-206958">meteorological processes</a> that scientists are still trying to understand. We also need to make sure the roles of local planning and preparation in minimising the impact of these events are not overlooked. <h2>3. Challenge arguments about politicising the weather</h2> In May 2023, Republican governor of Florida, Ron DeSantis, dismissed concerns about global warming by claiming that he rejects the <a href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/us-politics/desantis-climate-change-fox-news-b2346211.html">“politicisation of the weather”</a>. Ontario premier, Doug Ford, recently <a href="https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ontario-climate-change-forest-fires-politics-ford-stiles-1.6869071">made a similar argument</a> about Canada’s wildfires. In conversations, it’s possible that someone might accuse you too of “politicising” the weather. You can (respectfully) push back against this claim. This argument is a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/global-sustainability/article/discourses-of-climate-delay/7B11B722E3E3454BB6212378E32985A7">discourse of climate delay</a>. Rather than denying the existence of human-driven climate change, climate delay discourses try to shut down climate discussions and cast doubt on the need to act very quickly. These arguments disingenuously assert that acting on climate is too expensive, too late or that someone else should take care of it – and they are <a href="https://theconversation.com/climate-change-multi-country-media-analysis-shows-scepticism-of-the-basic-science-is-dying-out-198303">becoming increasingly common</a>. If we shouldn’t discuss climate change when extreme weather occurs, then when is the right time? If we want to protect lives, we need to talk about – and act upon – the risks associated with extreme weather events and the disasters they can cause. If talking about climate change politicises the weather, so be it. The politics of climate denial and delay affected this summer’s weather, and our current decisions will shape our planet for thousands of years. The science is clear. Act now or face increasingly dire consequences.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/210412/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/josh-ettinger-1302389">Josh Ettinger</a>, Doctoral researcher, School of Geography and the Environment, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-oxford-1260">University of Oxford</a> Image credits: Getty Images This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/extreme-weather-events-are-exactly-the-time-to-talk-about-climate-change-heres-why-210412">original article</a>.

Travel Trouble

Outrage after renters confronted with cleaning “scoring system”

An Australian real estate agent has come under fire for their “demoralising” scoring system for tenants during routine inspections. One fired up renter said they were shocked to receive a scorecard from the agent after they complied with an inspection, and shared their feedback on Reddit. The scorecard rated the tenant’s efforts cleaning the property in 17 different rooms and areas, marking them on cleanliness, and if the areas were damaged or required maintenance. The renter was then also given an overall rating out of five stars, based on the upkeep of their rental home. The Reddit user showed that they received just three and half stars, despite being marked down in only one area due to a light globe not working. In their post, the tenant said they had made every effort to clean the home, adding that the rating was “demoralising”. “I’ve been renting a long time, and my deep cleaning routine is based around inspections,” they explained. “I go all out - every room in my little 3x2 villa is given a spring clean, every surface is washed including walls, doors, lights, windows, carpets etc.” “Had my latest inspection a few weeks ago and just received the report. Despite the agent commenting once again that she never sees houses as clean as mine, and taking 112 (!) photos of every single thing that shows how great the condition of the house is - having one light globe not working is so terrible that I’m scored three and a half out of five.” The renter went on to say that they had only recently discovered that the broken light globe was the real estate’s responsibility to replace, and does not warrant such a severe marking down in their “score”. “The globe in question is a downlight fitting. We have so many downlights that I don’t even use this particular one,” they continued. “I can’t replace the globe itself, I need to get into the roof to replace the whole unit. Thanks to people here I’ve learned this isn’t even my responsibility to fix!” The renter’s post sparked a huge outrage online, with many up in arms over the current state of the rental market and unrealistic expectations of estate agents. One person said, “I fully believe that the average renter keeps a home to a higher standard than an owner, and it seems deliberately demoralising that someone could be marked down for having a light out.” Another added, “This is ridiculously petty, and more importantly, totally irrelevant to the purpose of a periodic inspection. Which is to identify whether any maintenance is needed.” A third person took their anger out on the entire system, summing it up by writing, “I sort of wonder what little lightbulb clicks in your mind and you wake up one day and ask yourself, ‘How can I be a massive c*** who offers no value to society? I know! I will get into real estate.’” Image credits: Getty Images / Reddit

Real Estate

3 reasons you feel hungrier and crave comfort foods when the weather turns cold

As we move through Autumn, parts of Australia are starting to see cooler weather. For some of us, that can mean increasing feelings of hunger and cravings for “comfort food” such as as pasta, stews and ramen. But what’s happening in our body? <h2>3 things change when it gets cold</h2> 1. Our body conserves heat It sends this energy it conserves to our internal organs so they can maintain their temperature and work properly. The body can also perform heat-generating activities (such as shivering), which uses <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21261804/">energy</a>. The body will then look for additional energy through calories from eating food. 2. Our body warms up when eating When we eat, the body needs to expend energy to digest, absorb, and metabolise the nutrients. This process requires the use of energy, which generates heat in the body, leading to an increase in body temperature termed “<a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36012714/">diet-induced thermogenesis</a>”. However, the amount of energy used to keep us warm is quite <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/nonshivering-thermogenesis">modest</a>. 3. Some people experience a drop in the neurotransmitter called serotonin This is partly because the rate our body produces serotonin is related to <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lancet/PIIS0140673602117375.pdf">sunlight</a>, which is lower in winter. Serotonin helps to regulate mood, appetite, and sleep, among other things. When serotonin levels are low, it can lead to increased hunger and decreased satiety (feeling that you’ve had enough to eat), making us feel hungrier and less satisfied after meals. <h2>Why we love comfort food in winter</h2> Many of us struggle to eat salad in winter and crave mum’s chicken soup or a slow cooked, brothy ramen. Research shows our brain detects the cold weather and looks for warm <a href="https://www.mdpi.com/2072-6643/9/6/592">food</a>. Warm food can provide a sense of comfort and cosiness, which is particularly appealing during the colder months when we spend more time indoors. <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1878450X16300786">Comfort food</a> can mean something different for everyone. They are foods we reach for in periods of stress, nostalgia, discomfort (like being cold), or emotional turmoil. For most of us, the foods we often over-indulge in are rich and carbohydrate heavy. A drop in serotonin has also been shown to stimulate an urge to eat more <a href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16340952/">carbohydrate-rich</a> foods such as gnocchi, pasta, ragout, mashed potatoes. <h2>What happens to those extra calories?</h2> If you consume more energy in cooler weather, some of it will be used to keep you warm. Beyond keeping us warm, extra calories we consume are stored. While most humans today have access to a year-round food supply, some research shows our bodies may still have some leftover instincts related to storing energy for the cooler months when food was harder to come by. This behaviour may also be driven by biological factors, such as changes in hormone levels that regulate appetite and <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnins.2013.00140/full">metabolism</a>. A fundamental principle of nutrition and metabolism is that the balance between the energy content of food eaten and energy expended to maintain life and to perform physical work affects body <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3302369/">weight</a>. This means any excess energy that we don’t use will be stored – usually as fat. Using mathematical modelling, researchers <a href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2015.2443">have predicted</a>weight gain is more likely when food is harder to find. Storing fat is an insurance against the risk of failing to find food, which for pre-industrial humans was most likely to happen in winter. <h2>It doesn’t have to be unhealthy</h2> No matter your cravings during cooler months, it’s important to remember your own personal health and wellbeing goals. If you’re worried about excess energy intake, a change in season is a great time to rethink healthy food choices. Including lots of whole fresh vegetables is key: think soups, curries, casseroles, and so on. Including protein (such as meat, fish, eggs, legumes) will keep you feeling fuller for longer. Image credits: Getty Images This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/3-reasons-you-feel-hungrier-and-crave-comfort-foods-when-the-weather-turns-cold-202831" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>.

Food & Wine

Floods, cyclones, thunderstorms: is climate change to blame for New Zealand’s summer of extreme weather?

The final months of New Zealand’s summer carried a massive sting, bringing “unprecedented” rainfalls several times over, from widespread flooding in Auckland at the end of January to ex-tropical Cyclone Gabrielle dumping record rains and causing devastating floods across the east coast of the North Island. After all that, New Zealand experienced spells of thunderstorms, bringing repeat floods to parts of Auckland and then Gisborne. The obvious question is what role climate change plays in these record-breaking rainfalls. Some answers come from the international <a href="https://www.worldweatherattribution.org/">World Weather Attribution</a> team, which today released a <a href="https://spiral.imperial.ac.uk/bitstream/10044/1/102624/10/Scientific%20report%20New%20Zealand%20Floods.pdf">rapid assessment</a> which shows very heavy rain, like that associated with Cyclone Gabrielle, has become about four times more common in the region and extreme downpours now drop 30% more rain. The team analysed weather data from several stations, which show the observed increase in heavy rain. It then used computer models to compare the climate as it is today, after about 1.2℃ of global warming since the late 1800s, with the climate of the past. The small size of the analysed region meant the team could not quantify the extent to which human-caused warming is responsible for the observed increase in heavy rain in this part of New Zealand, but concluded it was the likely cause. <h2>More energy in the atmosphere and ocean</h2> Many factors add to the strength of a storm and the intensity of rainfall, especially for short bursts. A crucial factor is always the amount of energy available. Climate change is increasing that amount of energy in two main ways. First, everything is getting warmer. Rising sea surface temperatures provide <a href="https://sciencebrief.org/uploads/reviews/ScienceBrief_Review_CYCLONES_Mar2021.pdf">extra fuel for the development of tropical cyclones</a> because they grow by heating from below. Warmer seas mean potentially faster development of tropical cyclones, and stronger, more vigorous storms overall. Sea temperatures must be at least 26.5℃ to support the build-up of a tropical cyclone. So, as the oceans warm, these storms can reach farther from the equator. Second, warmer air can hold more water vapour. Every degree of warming increases the maximum amount of water vapour by around 7%. That extra water vapour tends to fall out as extra rain, but it also provides extra energy to a storm. <h2>Driving waves further inland</h2> The energy it takes to evaporate the water from the ocean surface and turn it into vapour is released again when the vapour condenses back into liquid water. A moister airmass heats the atmosphere more when clouds and rain form, making the air more buoyant and able to rise up more. This creates deeper, more vigorous clouds with stronger updrafts, and again more rain. Stronger updrafts in a storm mean more air will have to be drawn into the storm near the Earth’s surface, ensuring more “convergence” of air and moisture (water vapour). That’s why, even though a degree of warming translates to 7% more water vapour in the air, we can get 20% increases, or larger, in extreme rainfalls. All of this extra energy can contribute to making the storm stronger overall, with stronger winds and lower air pressures in its centre. This seems to have happened with Cyclone Gabrielle. Record low pressures were recorded at a few North Island locations as the storm passed. The low pressures act like a vacuum cleaner, sucking the sea surface up above normal sea level. The strong winds can then drive waves much further inland. Add in a bit of sea-level rise, and coastal inundation can get a lot worse a lot quicker. As the climate continues to change, storm intensity is likely to increase on average, as sea levels continue to rise. Those effects together are bound to lead to more dramatic coastal erosion and inundation. <h2>Thunderstorms riding warming seas</h2> These processes work for thunderstorms as well. A thunder cloud often starts as a buoyant mass of air over a warm surface. As the air rises (or convects), it cools and forces water vapour to condense back to liquid water, releasing heat and increasing the buoyancy and speed of the rising air. Again, that allows more moist air to be drawn into the cloud, and that convergence of moist air can increase rainfall amounts well above the 7% per degree of warming, for short bursts of very intense convection. The more intense the convection, the stronger the convergence of moisture and the heavier the resulting rainfall. Tropical cyclones have rings of thunderstorms around their eye during the time when they are truly tropical storms. As they transition out of the tropics into our neighbourhood, they change their structure but retain a lot of the moisture and buoyancy of the air. An ex-tropical cyclone like Gabrielle, moving over very warm water, can pack a devastating punch. Why has New Zealand had so much of this very heavy rain during the weeks from late January? Partly it’s the very warm ocean waters around Aotearoa (up to marine heatwave conditions) and farther north into the Coral Sea. That itself is partly related to the ongoing La Niña event in the tropical Pacific, which tends to pile up warm water (and tropical cyclones) in the west. But it is also related to ongoing global warming. As sea temperatures increase, it becomes easier to reach heatwave conditions. Warmer seas load the atmosphere with water vapour. Partly, too, the air over the North Island has been unusually “unstable” lately, very warm near ground level but cooler than normal higher up. That makes the buoyance in thunderstorms work even better and more strongly, encouraging very heavy rainfall. These conditions seem to have eased now, but severe thunderstorms continue to develop. As we move from summer into autumn, as the warmest seas move eastwards away from us and as La Niña fades in the tropics, the chances of a repeat event are diminishing. For now at least. But if we continue to warm the climate with more greenhouse gas emissions, we will continue to load the dice towards more very heavy rain over Aotearoa. Let us hope those regions and communities so badly affected by recent events have a chance to dry out, rebuild and recover before the next extreme weather. This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/floods-cyclones-thunderstorms-is-climate-change-to-blame-for-new-zealands-summer-of-extreme-weather-201161" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. Images: Getty

Travel Trouble

Europe warming at double the rate of other continents

Europe is the fastest-warming continent in the world, according to a newly released report from the World Meteorological Organization. The State of the Climate in Europe report cites the loss of more than 25 metres of ice loss in alpine glaciers, and 20 metres of loss in Greenland (a Danish territory), as particularly responsible for the rise in ocean levels. Climate change events were also responsible for more than US$50 billion in damages. In its statement releasing the report, the WMO described Europe as the “live picture” of a world burdened by warming climate. Since 1990, Europe’s temperatures have undergone an average rate of temperature increase of 0.5 degrees each decade. That rate is twice as high as the next fastest warming continent. The WMO points to high-impact weather and climate events – nearly 85% of which were floods and storms – as directly affecting around 510,000 people. Extreme heat also took its toll, with provisional record temperatures experienced in southern Italy in August reaching 48.8°C. These temperatures influenced drought and low rainfall across the Mediterranean, leading to deadly wildfires that burned through three times the amount of land area than the region’s 15-year average up to 2020. <h2>But are carbon emissions decreasing in Europe?</h2> Fuel prices and the COVID-19 pandemic were major influences on the continent’s carbon emissions reduction, the WMO found. A 31% decline in carbon emissions between 1990 and 2020 was recorded, although it’s expected to be far less in 2021 due to the relaxation of COVID-19 restrictions and altered fuel prices. 2021 also marked the introduction of EU legislation to make net zero by 2050 a legally-binding target for member nations. Although temperature data provided by six datasets showed a decrease in 2021 from the preceding year, it still marked one of the 10 warmest years on record. And observers will keenly await the release of next year’s 2022 appraisal, after record summer droughts and heatwaves heaped pressure on European nations. Even now, regions across the continent are recording their hottest temperatures for November on record. <blockquote class="twitter-tweet"> (2) More November records in Europe. France had 21 records today (left column), the most important were: Aigues Mortes (POR since 1872), Aix en Provence and Valence (1st class stations). In Austria 4 records beaten the highest was 23.3C at Hohe Wand (right column). tb continued.. <a href="https://t.co/DjmR7oR0oR">pic.twitter.com/DjmR7oR0oR</a> — Extreme Temperatures Around The World (@extremetemps) <a href="https://twitter.com/extremetemps/status/1587481854680219653?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">November 1, 2022</a></blockquote> “[Europe] reminds us that even well-prepared societies are not safe from impacts of extreme weather events,” says WMO secretary-general Professor Petteri Taalas. “This year, like 2021, large parts of Europe have been affected by extensive heatwaves and drought, fuelling wildfires. In 2021, exceptional floods caused death and devastation. “On the mitigation side, the good pace in reducing greenhouse gases emissions in the region should continue and ambition should be further increased. Europe can play a key role towards achieving a carbon neutral society by the middle of the century to meet the Paris Agreement.” <h2>Future outlook</h2> The release of the report comes ahead of the global climate change conference to be held in Egypt, where delegations from around the world convene to recalibrate efforts to address climate change. Last year’s COP26 conference in Glasgow was criticised for scrubbing language to phase out coal from the final agreement. In its place came language to ‘phase down’ its use. Coal is the leading source of carbon emissions from energy use. Similarly, several nations failed to renew important targets to reduce carbon emissions by the end of the decade, considered an important tipping point if net zero by 2050 is to be achieved. The WMO echoed the most recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change forecasts that weather, climate and water disasters will increase in the future, and that Europe will experience temperature rises at rates exceeding global average increases. This article originally appeared on <a href="https://cosmosmagazine.com/earth/europe-warming-at-double-the-rate-of-other-continents/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">cosmosmagazine.com</a> and was written by Matthew Agius. Image: Getty

Travel Trouble

5 places in the world that have the best weather

It’s just about the first question anyone asks you when you return from a holiday – “how was the weather?” It can make or break a holiday. These are the places you should go if you want to leave the wellies at home. Los Angeles <img src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/2022/10/los-angeles.jpg" alt="" width="1280" height="720" /> California is a pretty safe bet all round and has easily the best weather in the USA. You can expect “perfect” days for close to half the year. That means an average temperature between 12 and 23 degrees Celsius, and temperatures that never fall below seven degrees or rise above 30. And on top of that there’s almost no rain. Sounds pretty good to us. Canary Islands <img src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/2022/10/canary-islands2.jpg" alt="" width="1280" height="720" /> This island group off the northern coast of West Africa is technically a Spanish territory and a popular holiday spot for the Brits. With an average temperature of 22 degrees Celsius all year round and no extremes of hot or cold, the Canaries claim to have the best climate in the world. The capital, Gran Canaria, gets a minimum of six hours of sunshine per day in winter and up to almost eight hours in summer. Plenty of time then to indulge in a round of golf – there are eight world-class courses on the island. Sao Paulo <img src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/2022/10/sao-paulo.jpg" alt="" width="1280" height="720" /> Whatever time of year you visit Brazil’s largest city, you probably won’t need to bring a jacket. Even in the middle of winter (July or August) temperatures rarely get below 20 degrees and they don’t rise much over 30 in summer. It can be rainy, but the city rarely gets big storms. Its inland location and high elevation work together to create a perfect microclimate. This is in contrast to the coastal city of Rio de Janeiro, just 400 kilometres away, which swelters through the hotter months. Lisbon <img src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/2022/10/lisbon.jpg" alt="" width="1280" height="720" /> The Portuguese capital sits on the Atlantic coast, which moderates its weather and helps it avoid the uncomfortably hot summers that you’ll find in many other European capitals. Lisbon gets around 30 inches of rain each year but the majority of this falls during winter, so you’re likely to get weeks on end of pure sunshine in the summer months. Sydney <img src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/2022/10/opera-house7.jpg" alt="" width="1280" height="720" /> Despite Australia having some of the most extreme weather in the world, Sydney is famous for its dry summers, mild winters and endless hours of sparkling sunshine. Even a run of cold days is quickly forgotten when the harbour city turns on a warm, sunny August afternoon. Images: Getty Images

International Travel

Did COVID harm my immune system?

So you’ve had COVID and have now recovered. You don’t have ongoing symptoms and luckily, you don’t seem to have developed <a href="https://theconversation.com/long-covid-how-researchers-are-zeroing-in-on-the-self-targeted-immune-attacks-that-may-lurk-behind-it-169911" target="_blank" rel="noopener">long COVID</a>. But what impacts has COVID had on your overall immune system? It’s early days yet. But growing evidence suggests there are changes to your immune system that may put you at risk of other infectious diseases. Here’s what we know so far. <h2>A round of viral infections</h2> Over this past winter, many of us have had what seemed like a <a href="https://theconversation.com/why-do-i-and-my-kids-get-so-many-colds-and-with-all-this-covid-around-should-we-be-isolating-too-179302" target="_blank" rel="noopener">continual round</a> of viral illness. This may have included COVID, <a href="https://www.who.int/health-topics/influenza-seasonal#tab=tab_1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">influenza</a> or infection with <a href="https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/respiratory-syncytial-virus/symptoms-causes/syc-20353098" target="_blank" rel="noopener">respiratory syncytial virus</a>. We may have recovered from one infection, only to get another. Then there is the re-emergence of infectious diseases globally such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/we-need-to-talk-about-monkeypox-without-shame-and-blame-188295" target="_blank" rel="noopener">monkeypox</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/the-latest-polio-cases-have-put-the-world-on-alert-heres-what-this-means-for-australia-and-people-travelling-overseas-188989" target="_blank" rel="noopener">polio</a>. Could these all be connected? Does COVID somehow weaken the immune system to make us more prone to other infectious diseases? There are <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128009475000168?via%3Dihub" target="_blank" rel="noopener">many reasons</a> for infectious diseases to emerge in new locations, after many decades, or in new populations. So we cannot jump to the conclusion COVID infections have given rise to these and other viral infections. But evidence is building of the negative impact of COVID on a healthy individual’s immune system, several weeks after symptoms have subsided. <h2>What happens when you catch a virus?</h2> There are three possible outcomes after a viral infection: 1) your immune system clears the infection and you recover (for instance, with <a href="https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/ear-nose-throat/Pages/Rhinovirus-Infections.aspx" target="_blank" rel="noopener">rhinovirus</a> which causes the common cold) 2) your immune system fights the virus into “latency” and you recover with a virus dormant in our bodies (for instance, <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/chickenpox" target="_blank" rel="noopener">varicella zoster virus</a>, which causes chickenpox) 3) your immune system fights, and despite best efforts the virus remains “chronic”, replicating at very low levels (this can occur for <a href="https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hepatitis-c" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hepatitis C virus</a>). Ideally we all want option 1, to clear the virus. In fact, most of us <a href="https://biosignaling.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12964-022-00856-w" target="_blank" rel="noopener">clear SARS-CoV-2</a>, the virus that causes COVID. That’s through a complex process, using many different parts of our immune system. But international evidence suggests changes to our immune cells after SARS-CoV-2 infection may have other impacts. It may affect our ability to fight other viruses, as well as other pathogens, such as bacteria or fungi. <h2>How much do we know?</h2> An <a href="https://bmcmedicine.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12916-021-02228-6" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Australian study</a> has found SARS-CoV-2 alters the balance of immune cells up to 24 weeks after clearing the infection. There were changes to the relative numbers and types of immune cells between people who had recovered from COVID compared with healthy people who had not been infected. This included changes to cells of the <a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/organ-systems/the-immune-system/a/innate-immunity" target="_blank" rel="noopener">innate immune system</a> (which provides a non-specific immune response) and the <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21070/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">adaptive immune system</a> (a specific immune response, targeting a recognised foreign invader). <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1009742" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Another study</a> focused specifically on <a href="https://www.immunology.org/public-information/bitesized-immunology/cells/dendritic-cells" target="_blank" rel="noopener">dendritic cells</a> – the immune cells that are often considered the body’s “first line of defence”. Researchers found fewer of these cells circulating after people recovered from COVID. The ones that remained were less able to activate white blood cells known as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/T-cell" target="_blank" rel="noopener">T-cells</a>, a critical step in activating anti-viral immunity. Other studies have found different impacts on T-cells, and other types of white blood cells known as <a href="https://askabiologist.asu.edu/b-cell" target="_blank" rel="noopener">B-cells</a> (cells involved in producing antibodies). After SARS-CoV-2 infection, one study <a href="https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI140491" target="_blank" rel="noopener">found evidence</a> many of these cells had been activated and “exhausted”. This suggests the cells are dysfunctional, and might not be able to adequately fight a subsequent infection. In other words, sustained activation of these immune cells after a SARS-CoV-2 infection may have an impact on other inflammatory diseases. <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41392-021-00749-3#citeas" target="_blank" rel="noopener">One study</a> found people who had recovered from COVID have changes in different types of B-cells. This included changes in the cells’ metabolism, which may impact how these cells function. Given B-cells are critical for producing antibodies, we’re not quite sure of the precise implications. Could this influence how our bodies produce antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 should we encounter it again? Or could this impact our ability to produce antibodies against pathogens more broadly – against other viruses, bacteria or fungi? The study did not say. <h2>What impact will these changes have?</h2> One of the main concerns is whether such changes may impact how the immune system responds to other infections, or whether these changes might worsen or cause other chronic conditions. So more work needs to be done to understand the long-term impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on a person’s immune system. For instance, we still don’t know how long these changes to the immune system last, and if the immune system recovers. We also don’t know if SARS-CoV-2 triggers other chronic illnesses, such as <a href="https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/chronic-fatigue-syndrome-cfs-me" target="_blank" rel="noopener">chronic fatigue syndrome</a> (myalgic encephalomyelitis). Research into this is ongoing. What we do know is that having a healthy immune system and being vaccinated (when a vaccine has been developed) is critically important to have the best chance of fighting any infection. This article originally appeared on <a href="https://theconversation.com/ive-had-covid-and-am-constantly-getting-colds-did-covid-harm-my-immune-system-am-i-now-at-risk-of-other-infectious-diseases-188899" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a>. Image: Shutterstock

Body

“I had to reach the island”: Aussie mum recalls terrifying turn on cruising scuba dive

A NSW woman has said a cruise company should have been better prepared for adverse weather after a holiday scuba dive nearly went horribly wrong. Justine Clark and her sons, 18-year-old Felix and 20-year-old Max, resurfaced from an offshore dive in Fiji to find that their boat was nowhere to be seen. The trio were on a seven-day cruise in Fiji when they went on an afternoon dive at an offshore site called The Supermarket with another cruise-goer and the divemaster, who worked for a company subcontracted by Captain Cook Cruises Fiji. Though the weather began to worsen as they travelled to the dive site, the party pushed on. "We travelled into an approaching storm and out into open waters in what appeared to be a large channel about 20 kilometres from any island," Ms Clark told the <a href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-09-21/fiji-dive-turns-into-nightmare-for-newcastle-mum-and-sons/101448116" target="_blank" rel="noopener">ABC</a>. When she resurfaced with her eldest son after a dive of about 40 minutes, she said the boat was nowhere to be seen and the weather conditions were rough. <img src="https://oversixtydev.blob.core.windows.net/media/2022/09/justine-cruise-nightmare1.jpg" alt="" width="1280" height="720" /> A tender boat took Justine Clark, her two sons, and others in their diving party to the dive site. Image: Justine Clark "No tender boat was visible on surfacing, the swell was 2 metres, it was dark with grey clouds and high wind," she said. Ms Clark, who has over 30 years of diving experience, said their divemaster was the next to surface and realise what had happened. "He was shocked at the events and stated this had never happened in his 27 years of diving," she recalled. When the divemaster then advised the group to start swimming for an island they could see in the distance, Ms Clark said she was determined to stay calm. "I can't impress how concerned I was for everyone's health, sharks and the sense of determination I had to reach the island in a calm manner," she continued. "The maternal drive in me was something I had not felt since the birth of my first son." After about 50 minutes, a small boat was spotted travelling towards the group, with the divemaster telling them to inflate their surface marker buoys so they could be seen more easily. The boat’s operator, a garbage collector who had been picking up ocean rubbish, noticed the tip of one of the buoys. "We were all smiles and I was blowing a kiss to the Fijian who saved us," Ms Clark said. They were quickly found by the tender boat driver. "He apologised and told me he was so scared and he had radioed the captain that he lost us," Ms Clark said. In a written response shared with the outlet, Captain Cook Cruises Fiji explained that the tender boat had blown away from the site, with the surface conditions making it difficult for the operator to find and follow the divers’ bubbles. The cruise operator said the situation was unprecedented and that changes were made to the “already tight” safety procedures following an internal review. Though rare, Ms Clark said cruise companies should still be prepared. "I think it's really important that operators are prepared for those situations that may be rare but can still occur," she said. It isn’t the first time bad weather has caused strife for cruise ships this year, after wild weather prevented the Coral Princess and other 20 other vessels from docking in Brisbane for several days in July, prompting 2,000 cruise passengers to be stranded onboard. Images: Justine Clark

Cruising

AI system sees beyond the frame of famous artworks

A new AI tool can provide a glimpse of what could potentially be going on beyond the frame of famous paintings, giving them a brand new life. OpenAI, a San Francisco-based company, has created a new tool called 'Outpainting' for its text-to-image AI system, DALL-E. Outpainting allows the system to imagine what's outside the frame of famous works such as Girl with The Pearl Earring, Mona Lisa and Dogs Playing Poker. DALL-E relies on artificial neural networks (ANNs), which simulate the way the brain works in order to learn and create an image from text. Now with Outpainting, users must describe the extended visuals in text form for DALL-E to “paint” the newly imagined artwork. Outpainting, which is primarily aimed for professionals who work with images, will let users 'extend their creativity' and 'tell a bigger story', according to OpenAI. US artist August Kamp used Outpainting to reimagine the famous 1665 painting Girl with a Pearl Earring by Johannes Vermeer, extending the background in the original style. The results show the iconic subject in a domestic setting, surrounded by crockery, houseplants, fruit, boxes and more. Other Outpainting attempts took a more creative turn, with one showing the Mona Lisa surrounded by a dystopian wasteland, and a version of A Friend In Need showing an additional table of gambling canines. <blockquote class="twitter-tweet"> “Outpainting: an apocalyptic Mona Lisa” by tonidl1989<a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/dalle?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#dalle</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/dalle2?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#dalle2</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/aiart?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#aiart</a> <a href="https://twitter.com/hashtag/aiartwork?src=hash&ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">#aiartwork</a> <a href="https://t.co/puYVxjyFMm">pic.twitter.com/puYVxjyFMm</a> — Best Dalle2 AI Art 🎨 (@Dalle2AI) <a href="https://twitter.com/Dalle2AI/status/1565168579376566278?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">September 1, 2022</a></blockquote> <blockquote class="twitter-tweet"> Used DALL-E 2’s new “outpainting” feature to expand the world’s greatest work of art… <a href="https://t.co/0HXQzngt9P">pic.twitter.com/0HXQzngt9P</a> — M.G. Siegler (@mgsiegler) <a href="https://twitter.com/mgsiegler/status/1565398150482784256?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw">September 1, 2022</a></blockquote> DALL-E is available to more than one million people to create AI-generated images, all with a series of text prompts. DALL-E is just one of many AI systems infiltrating the art world, joining the likes of Midjourney and Imagen redefining how we create and appreciate art. Image credits: DALL-E - August Kamp

Art

Best cold weather workouts you can do from the comfort of home

Although most of us will be tempted to hit snooze on those colder mornings, the chilly season doesn’t mean we have to hibernate our fitness routines. With a vast library of content, <a href="https://www.onepeloton.com.au/home-trial?utm_source=google&utm_medium=search&utm_campaign=portfolio&gclsrc=aw.ds&gclid=CjwKCAjwi8iXBhBeEiwAKbUofZ2cinznTjKrGyrUBTp1P0c5mEGYJTdPZxy1Yq9RiKTabUq6095i1RoCEb4QAvD_BwE" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Peloton</a> provides a digital fitness experience with convenience at its centre – allowing you to work out anywhere, anytime, all while catering to your individual fitness goals and ability. Leading cardiologist and member of the Peloton Health and Wellness Advisory Council, Dr Suzanne Steinbaum says, “Exercising throughout the year can decrease the major risk factors associated with heart disease and help manage cholesterol, blood pressure, sugars, weight and stress levels, which in turn can dilate the arteries and maximise cardiac functioning. Structured workouts, like Peloton’s range of HIIT and low-impact classes, can motivate and help you stay on track, while also being part of a vibrant community that supports and cheers you on, while working out at your own pace”. Peloton has curated the best workouts to overcome the winter woes and develop a regular fitness routine. 1. Strength: Lean muscle mass naturally diminishes as we age. Choose a strength training class, starting with a beginner workout such as <a href="https://members.onepeloton.co.uk/classes/player/dda80a799bf64531ba1e2947a0896df6" target="_blank" rel="noopener">20 Min Strength Roll Call with Jess Sims</a> to develop stronger bones, manage chronic conditions as well as regulate your weight and improve your heart's strength. The great thing about strength training in winter is you can do it inside with whatever you have available or use the <a href="https://www.onepeloton.com.au/guide" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Peloton Guide</a> if you want to take your workout to the next level. With the Peloton Guide, or by using the Peloton App on your TV, you can turn your living room into a home gym enhanced by a guided workout experience with features including a Movement Tracker to keep you accountable. It’s always important to remember that even when working out from home, ensure that you are exercising safely and are aware of your surroundings in order to prevent injury. 2. Warm-up class: A 15-minute warm-up can be the push you need to get going in the morning. Instead of reading the news or flicking through the TV channels, scroll through the various warm-up classes offered on the <a href="https://www.onepeloton.com/app" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Peloton App</a>. A warm-up class can help you feel more energised and focused for the day ahead and is good for the mind as well as the body. Once you've started, you’ll likely feel exhilarated from the music that you'll want to keep going with a full class. Sometimes just getting started is the hardest part, but once your heart starts beating and blood starts flowing, you will feel energised and motivated particularly on those cold days.. 3. Cardio: If you'd rather just get right into it, a solid HIIT (High-Intensity Interval Training) workout usually lasts 20 to 30 minutes, with classes available on the Peloton App as well as the Bike. The winter air can help improve your endurance for cardio exercises, therefore you might use this indoor time to get into a routine and create a regular exercise program. Plan to take a 20-30 minute class where you get your heart rate up at least 5 days a week for maximum benefit. Choose a HIIT class from the <a href="https://www.onepeloton.com/app" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Peloton App</a> to boost your heart rate to not only keep you warm but improve your cardiovascular health. Dr Suzanne Steinbaum, says: “High-intensity interval training, or HIIT, workouts are popular for a reason: Studies suggest that these types of workouts can deliver the same health benefits of a moderate workout in half the time. It’s true, but only if you strike the right balance and work out on a consistent basis.” 4. Yoga: Although yoga might not be the first thing that comes to mind for a great workout, it actually has a lot of benefits. It helps to improve your flexibility, balance and increase you stamina. A 2016 <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4728955/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">study</a> also found that even bi-weekly yoga sessions can help with recovery, boost performance, strengthen your mental game, help with breathing more efficiently, open up tight hips, quads and hamstrings and build core strength. 5. Meditation: If you’re looking for something to help you stay centred all winter long, try a Peloton Meditation class from the comfort of your warm home. Bring a little more calm, focus and positive energy into your life, with Peloton’s range of meditation classes, many of whom are led by Peloton’s first Australian Instructor,<a href="https://www.onepeloton.com.au/instructors/peloton_l" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Kirra Michel</a>. Kirra stresses the importance of incorporating mindfulness and meditation in your exercise routine. “I might have a bias towards yoga and meditation as it's my passion. But, it's special in the fact it incorporates physical activity, breath work, and mindfulness. All of which positively affect cardiovascular risk factors. Modalities we conveniently have on the OnePeloton App!” About Peloton Peloton makes fitness entertaining, approachable, effective, and convenient while fostering social connections that motivate its members to commit to their fitness journeys. Australians can access the Peloton library with thousands of live and on-demand classes at the gym, at home, on the road, or wherever they choose to move, through the Peloton Bike, Peloton Bike+, Peloton Guide, and Peloton App on any iOS or Android device and select smart TVs. For more information, visit <a href="http://www.onepeloton.com.au/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">www.onepeloton.com.au</a>. About Suzanne Steinbaum Dr Suzanne Steinbaum is a leader in preventive cardiology, now in private practice in New York, and she is a paid consultant of the Peloton Health and Wellness Advisory Council. She is the CEO/Founder of Heart-Tech Health, a technology-based prevention model. She published Dr. Suzanne Steinbaum’s Heart Book: Every Woman’s Guide to a Heart-Healthy Life, and has been a national spokesperson for Go Red through the American Heart Association for 18 years. Follow her on <a href="https://www.instagram.com/drsteinbaum/?hl=en" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Instagram</a> and<a href="https://twitter.com/drsteinbaum?lang=en" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Twitter</a>. Image: Supplied

Body

Stunning finalists’ images for photography competition revealed

The phenomenal images from the finalists of the prestigious Weather Photographer of the Year have been revealed. Photographers from 119 countries submitted their stunning images which range from dramatic storms, frozen and frosty vistas, spectacular sunsets, impacts of climate change and curious weather phenomena. The talented professionals and amateur photographers were able to capture spectacular landscapes which are affected differently depending on the weather. Professor Liz Bentley, Chief Executive of the Royal Meteorological Society (RMetS) said the competition is an exciting opportunity to explore never before seen moments. “I am always amazed by something new, something I haven’t seen before, or a new angle that reignites my passion for discussing the weather,” she said. “As the competition has grown over the past seven years, it has allowed us to create a platform where more stories can be told about the majesty and awe of the world’s weather and witness scenes of the impacts of climate change, which can help to prompt action.” Members of the public will be able to vote for their favourite photograph with the winners expected to be announced on October 6. Check out some of the exciting photos below. Images: RMetS

International Travel

Anne Heche's blood test results revealed after horror smash

An investigation of Anne Heche’s blood results have detected “the presence of drugs” following <a href="https://www.oversixty.com.au/news/news/new-details-of-actor-anne-heche-s-fiery-crash" target="_blank" rel="noopener">her horror smash</a>. The US actress was pulled out of her burning car after she smashed into a mansion in Los Angeles while driving a terrifying 140km/h on August 5. The 53-year-old suffered severe injuries and soon after the crash fell into a coma and has not regained consciousness since. Almost a week after the incident, a Los Angeles Police Department Public Information Officer confirmed there was a “presence of drugs” in Anne’s blood system. “Based on the blood draw, it revealed the presence of drugs, however additional testing is required to rule out any substances that were administered at the hospital as part of her medical treatment,” they told <a href="https://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/anne-heche-blood-test-revealed-presence-of-drugs" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Fox News Digital</a>. "Any secondary drugs [takes] up to 30 days for [a] secondary test to come back.” TMZ previously reported that Anne had cocaine in her system upon arrival at the hospital, but that is yet to be confirmed. The crash is currently being investigated by the LAPD who have confirmed that if Anne is found to have been drunk she would face significant charges. "If found intoxicated, [Heche] could be charged with misdemeanour DUI hit and run. No arrests have been made so far,” a representative said. Anne’s representative has confirmed that she is in an “extreme critical condition”. “She has a significant pulmonary injury requiring mechanical ventilation and burns that require surgical intervention,” her representative said. “She is in a coma and has not regained consciousness since shortly after the accident.” Image: Getty

Caring

Wedding swamped by massive waves

A wedding in Hawaii has been derailed after massive waves sent tables and chairs crashing towards guests. Wild weather that included waves over six-metres tall - attributed to high tides and rising sea levels associated with climate change - ravaged the island’s south shores over the weekend, according to the National Weather Service. Sara Ackerman, one of the attendees at the wedding in Kailua-Kona, filmed the terrifying scene that happened about five minutes before the ceremony was due to start. “I was filming it and then it just came over the wall and just completely annihilated all the tables and chairs,” she said. “It wasn’t like a life-threatening situation by any means whatsoever. It was just like, ‘Oh my gosh … What are we going to do? Where are we going to put the tables?’” <blockquote class="instagram-media" style="background: #FFF; border: 0; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: 0 0 1px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.5),0 1px 10px 0 rgba(0,0,0,0.15); margin: 1px; max-width: 540px; min-width: 326px; padding: 0; width: calc(100% - 2px);" data-instgrm-captioned="" data-instgrm-permalink="https://www.instagram.com/reel/CgHykPTpmSP/?utm_source=ig_embed&utm_campaign=loading" data-instgrm-version="14"> <div style="padding: 16px;"> <div style="display: flex; flex-direction: row; align-items: center;"> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 50%; flex-grow: 0; height: 40px; margin-right: 14px; width: 40px;"> </div> <div style="display: flex; flex-direction: column; flex-grow: 1; justify-content: center;"> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 4px; flex-grow: 0; height: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; width: 100px;"> </div> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 4px; flex-grow: 0; height: 14px; width: 60px;"> </div> </div> </div> <div style="padding: 19% 0;"> </div> <div style="display: block; height: 50px; margin: 0 auto 12px; width: 50px;"> </div> <div style="padding-top: 8px;"> <div style="color: #3897f0; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: 550; line-height: 18px;">View this post on Instagram</div> </div> <div style="padding: 12.5% 0;"> </div> <div style="display: flex; flex-direction: row; margin-bottom: 14px; align-items: center;"> <div> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 50%; height: 12.5px; width: 12.5px; transform: translateX(0px) translateY(7px);"> </div> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; height: 12.5px; transform: rotate(-45deg) translateX(3px) translateY(1px); width: 12.5px; flex-grow: 0; margin-right: 14px; margin-left: 2px;"> </div> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 50%; height: 12.5px; width: 12.5px; transform: translateX(9px) translateY(-18px);"> </div> </div> <div style="margin-left: 8px;"> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 50%; flex-grow: 0; height: 20px; width: 20px;"> </div> <div style="width: 0; height: 0; border-top: 2px solid transparent; border-left: 6px solid #f4f4f4; border-bottom: 2px solid transparent; transform: translateX(16px) translateY(-4px) rotate(30deg);"> </div> </div> <div style="margin-left: auto;"> <div style="width: 0px; border-top: 8px solid #F4F4F4; border-right: 8px solid transparent; transform: translateY(16px);"> </div> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; flex-grow: 0; height: 12px; width: 16px; transform: translateY(-4px);"> </div> <div style="width: 0; height: 0; border-top: 8px solid #F4F4F4; border-left: 8px solid transparent; transform: translateY(-4px) translateX(8px);"> </div> </div> </div> <div style="display: flex; flex-direction: column; flex-grow: 1; justify-content: center; margin-bottom: 24px;"> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 4px; flex-grow: 0; height: 14px; margin-bottom: 6px; width: 224px;"> </div> <div style="background-color: #f4f4f4; border-radius: 4px; flex-grow: 0; height: 14px; width: 144px;"> </div> </div> <p style="color: #c9c8cd; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 17px; margin-bottom: 0; margin-top: 8px; overflow: hidden; padding: 8px 0 7px; text-align: center; text-overflow: ellipsis; white-space: nowrap;"><a style="color: #c9c8cd; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 14px; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; line-height: 17px; text-decoration: none;" href="https://www.instagram.com/reel/CgHykPTpmSP/?utm_source=ig_embed&utm_campaign=loading" target="_blank" rel="noopener">A post shared by SARA ACKERMAN (@saraackermanbooks)</a> </div> </blockquote> Despite the chaos, Ackerman said the ceremony went ahead and that they cleaned up the mess after the newlyweds exchanged vows. “We had the ceremony and it was beautiful, having all the (sea) spray,” she said. “The ocean was really wild. So it was great for the photos.” The weather wasn’t just ruining weddings, with waves crashing into homes and businesses, and spilling across highways, as reported by <a href="https://www.9news.com.au/world/hawaii-waves-swamp-homes-weddings-during-historic-swell/24f3ac40-49a2-4fc4-9c0a-81257e7ea7d6" target="_blank" rel="noopener">9News</a>. Lifeguards and rescue crews across the state were occupied by the weather, conducting at least 1,960 rescues on the island of Oahu alone over two days. One serious injury was reported by Honolulu officials, where a surfer suffered a laceration to the back of his head. Chris Benchley, the meteorologist in charge at the National Weather Service’s office in Honolulu, said waves of this size were incredibly rare. “Waves over 12 or 15 feet (3.66 or 4.57 metres), those become extremely big and really rare to have," he said. “It’s the largest it’s been in several decades.” He explained that the swell was produced in the South Pacific, which recently experienced a “particularly strong winter storm” with winds focused directly at Samoa and Hawaii. Though it’s hard to pin the blame for this single weather event directly on climate change, Brenchley said it does play a role. “The most direct type of impact that we can use with climate change is the sea level rise,” he said. “Any time you add just even small amounts of water, you raise that sea level just a little bit. And now those impacts will be exacerbated whenever we have a large storm event or a ... high, high tide.” “We had some waves that were reaching 20 feet (6 metres), 20 feet-plus even,” Brenchley added. “That’s getting on the level of historic.” Image: 9News

Travel Trouble

Where do all the mosquitoes go in the winter?

Summer evenings by the pool, lake or BBQ mean mosquitoes. But what about during winter when we’re mostly indoors? As the weather cools, these bloodsucking pests are rarely seen. But where do they go? Warm, wet conditions suit mosquitoes Mosquitoes have complex life cycles that rely on water brought to <a href="https://theconversation.com/hidden-housemates-the-mosquitoes-that-battle-for-our-backyards-59072" target="_blank" rel="noopener">wetlands, flood plains, and water-holding containers</a> by seasonal rainfall. Depending on whether we’re experiencing a summer under the influence of <a href="https://theconversation.com/will-the-arrival-of-el-nino-mean-fewer-mosquitoes-this-summer-102496" target="_blank" rel="noopener">El Niño</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/la-nina-will-give-us-a-wet-summer-thats-great-weather-for-mozzies-147180" target="_blank" rel="noopener">La Niña</a>, mosquito populations will change in different ways. During warmer months, their life cycle lasts about a month. Eggs laid around water hatch and the immature mosquitoes go through four developmental stages. Larvae then change to pupae, from which an adult mosquito emerges, sits briefly on the water surface, and then flies off to buzz and bite and continue the cycle. Water is crucial but temperature is really important too. Unlike warm-blooded animals, mosquitoes can’t control their own body temperatures. The warmer it is, the more active mosquitoes will be. There’s usually more of them about too. But once cold weather arrives, their activity slows. They fly less, they don’t bite as often, they reproduce less, and their life cycle takes longer to complete. Temperature also plays a role in determining the ability of mosquitoes to <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fmicb.2020.584846/full" target="_blank" rel="noopener">spread viruses</a>. Cold weather isn’t great for mosquitoes but <a href="https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162023" target="_blank" rel="noopener">millions of years of evolution</a> have given them a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13071-017-2235-0" target="_blank" rel="noopener">few tricks to survive</a>. <figure class="align-center "><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468677/original/file-20220614-21-qmcj4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&rect=0%2C43%2C4883%2C3211&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/468677/original/file-20220614-21-qmcj4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468677/original/file-20220614-21-qmcj4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468677/original/file-20220614-21-qmcj4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468677/original/file-20220614-21-qmcj4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468677/original/file-20220614-21-qmcj4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/468677/original/file-20220614-21-qmcj4w.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="" /><figcaption>Ponds and puddles may be frozen but that doesn’t mean all mosquitoes have disappeared. <a class="source" href="https://unsplash.com/photos/7UYnlgDyf0o" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Tom Keldenich/Unsplash</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">CC BY</a></figcaption></figure> Mosquitoes don’t disappear completely On a sunny afternoon in winter, you may notice the occasional mosquito buzzing about in your backyard. Not as many as in summer but they’re still around. Some mosquitoes do disappear. For example, the activity of the pest mosquito Culex annulirostris, thought to play an important role in the <a href="https://theconversation.com/japanese-encephalitis-virus-has-been-detected-in-australian-pigs-can-mozzies-now-spread-it-to-humans-178017" target="_blank" rel="noopener">spread of Japanese encephalitis virus</a> in Australia, dramatically declines when temperatures start dropping <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1442-9993.1980.tb01260.x" target="_blank" rel="noopener">below 17.5℃</a>. <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/aen.12021" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Studies in Sydney</a> have shown some mosquitoes, such as Culex annulirostris, disappear. Others, such as Culex quinquefasciatus and Culex molestus, remain active throughout the winter. You just may not notice them (unless they enter your home to buzz about your ears). <figure class="align-center "><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469917/original/file-20220621-17-k6jyri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469917/original/file-20220621-17-k6jyri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469917/original/file-20220621-17-k6jyri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469917/original/file-20220621-17-k6jyri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469917/original/file-20220621-17-k6jyri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469917/original/file-20220621-17-k6jyri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469917/original/file-20220621-17-k6jyri.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="" /><figcaption>Some mosquitoes, such as the common Aedes notoscriptus, may occasionally be seen buzzing about in winter. Cameron Webb/NSW Health Pathology</figcaption></figure> Mosquitoes can disappear into diapause We’re familiar with the idea of mammals hibernating through winter but mosquitoes, like many other insects, can enter a phase of inactivity called <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/eea.12753" target="_blank" rel="noopener">diapause</a>. Once cold weather arrives, adult mosquitoes find hiding places such as tree hollows and animal burrows, within the cracks and crevices of bushland environments, or in garages, basements or other structures around our homes, suburbs and cities. These mosquitoes may only live a few weeks during summer but going into diapause allows them to survive many months through winter. Mosquitoes can also be found in frozen bodies of water, whether it is a bucket of water in your backyard or a near freezing wetland. For example, there is a group of mosquitoes that belong to the genus Coquillettidia whose <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/jvec.12338" target="_blank" rel="noopener">larvae attach</a> to the submerged parts of aquatic plants and can survive the cold winter temperatures. Their development dramatically slows and they’ll stay in the water until spring arrives. <figure class="align-center zoomable"><a href="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469888/original/file-20220621-11-eny4r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=1000&fit=clip"><img src="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469888/original/file-20220621-11-eny4r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&fit=clip" sizes="(min-width: 1466px) 754px, (max-width: 599px) 100vw, (min-width: 600px) 600px, 237px" srcset="https://images.theconversation.com/files/469888/original/file-20220621-11-eny4r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=1 600w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469888/original/file-20220621-11-eny4r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=2 1200w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469888/original/file-20220621-11-eny4r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=600&h=400&fit=crop&dpr=3 1800w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469888/original/file-20220621-11-eny4r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=45&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=1 754w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469888/original/file-20220621-11-eny4r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=30&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=2 1508w, https://images.theconversation.com/files/469888/original/file-20220621-11-eny4r6.jpg?ixlib=rb-1.1.0&q=15&auto=format&w=754&h=503&fit=crop&dpr=3 2262w" alt="" /></a><figcaption>By going into ‘diapause’ adults can survive in places like tree hollows for the cold months. <a class="source" href="https://images.unsplash.com/photo-1625635756778-218152037ccc?ixlib=rb-1.2.1&ixid=MnwxMjA3fDB8MHxwaG90by1wYWdlfHx8fGVufDB8fHx8&auto=format&fit=crop&w=1770&q=80" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Unsplash/Pat Whelan</a>, <a class="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">CC BY</a></figcaption></figure> All their eggs in one winter basket Some mosquitoes make it through the winter thanks to their eggs. Mosquito eggs can be incredibly resilient. They survive being dried out in hot and salty coastal wetlands during summer but also frozen in snow-covered creeks in winter. In coastal regions of Australia, eggs of the saltmarsh mosquito (Aedes vigilax), sit perfectly safely on soil. Once the weather warms and tides bring in water to the wetlands, these eggs will be ready to hatch. There is also a special mosquito in Australia known as the “snow melt mosquito” (Aedes nivalis) whose <a href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1440-6055.1996.tb01371.x" target="_blank" rel="noopener">eggs survive under snow</a> and hatch once that snow melts and fills ponds, creeks and wetlands throughout alpine regions. Does it matter where mosquitoes go in the winter? It also isn’t just the mosquitoes that survive the cold months. Viruses, such as <a href="https://theconversation.com/japanese-encephalitis-virus-can-cause-deadly-brain-swelling-but-in-less-than-1-of-cases-178985" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Japanese encephalitis virus</a> or <a href="https://theconversation.com/explainer-what-is-ross-river-virus-24630" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Ross River virus</a>, can survive from <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2631767/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">summer to summer</a> in mosquito eggs, immature stages, or diapausing adults. Knowing the seasonal spread of mosquitoes helps health authorities design surveillance and control programs. It may help understand how <a href="https://entomologytoday.org/2022/05/24/snow-covered-tires-help-invasive-mosquitoes-survive-cold-winters/" target="_blank" rel="noopener">invasive mosquitoes survive</a> conditions in Australia outside their native ranges by <a href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0211167" target="_blank" rel="noopener">hiding out from the cold</a>, such as in rainwater tanks. Even mosquitoes typically found in tropical locations can even <a href="https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1365-2664.13480" target="_blank" rel="noopener">adapt to cooler climates</a>. This knowledge may even expose the chilly chink in mosquito’s armour that we can use to better control mosquito populations and reduce the risks of disease outbreaks.<img style="border: none !important; box-shadow: none !important; margin: 0 !important; max-height: 1px !important; max-width: 1px !important; min-height: 1px !important; min-width: 1px !important; opacity: 0 !important; outline: none !important; padding: 0 !important;" src="https://counter.theconversation.com/content/185021/count.gif?distributor=republish-lightbox-basic" alt="The Conversation" width="1" height="1" /> <a href="https://theconversation.com/profiles/cameron-webb-6736" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cameron Webb</a>, Clinical Associate Professor and Principal Hospital Scientist, <a href="https://theconversation.com/institutions/university-of-sydney-841" target="_blank" rel="noopener">University of Sydney</a> This article is republished from <a href="https://theconversation.com" target="_blank" rel="noopener">The Conversation</a> under a Creative Commons license. Read the <a href="https://theconversation.com/where-do-all-the-mosquitoes-go-in-the-winter-185021" target="_blank" rel="noopener">original article</a>. Image: Getty Images

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